That such deficiencies existed within Ptolemy's theory was not discovered de novo by Copernicus.

A credulousness, a distaste for documentation, an uncritical reliance on contemporary accounts, and a proneness to assume a theory as true before adequate proof was provided were all evidences of his failure to comprehend the use of the scientific method or to evaluate the responsibilities of the historian to his reading public.

J. T. Shotwell was appalled by such spurious history as that which attributed the fall of the Carolingian empire to the woolen trade, and he urged Adams to `` transform his essay into a real history, embodying not merely those facts which fit into his theory, but also the modifications and exceptions ''.

that theory was and is sound.

He proposed a fresh theory of alkalis which later was accepted in chemical practices.

It was not always easy to develop theory and doctrine which would square the two conditions.

In this connection, it might be noted that the theory of games was a mathematical discovery long before its uses in political science were exploited.

To find a place for them in their theory of knowledge would require them to revise the theory radically, and yet that theory was what they regarded as their most important discovery.

On the theory before us, such relief would be groundless, for in that suffering itself there was nothing bad at all, and hence in its nonoccurrence there would be nothing to be relieved about.

In these circumstances, since what was expressed by the remark when first made is, on the theory before us, simply absent, the remark now expresses nothing.

( P. 215 ) when corporate abuses were attacked, it was done on the theory that criminal penalties would be invoked rather than control.

Lincoln stated Douglas's popular sovereignty theory was a threat to the nation's morality and that Douglas represented a conspiracy to extend slavery to free states.

During the 1670s corpuscularianism was used by Isaac Newton in his development of the corpuscular theory of light.

( Despite common belief, he did not take a day from February ; see the debunked theory on month lengths ) According to a Senatus consultum quoted by Macrobius, he chose this month because it was the time of several of his great triumphs, including the conquest of Egypt.

" Karpov acknowledged that his understanding of chess theory was very confused at that time, and wrote later that the homework which Botvinnik assigned greatly helped him, since it required that he consult chess books and work diligently.

" The first well-known version of anarcho-capitalism was formulated by Austrian School economist and libertarian Murray Rothbard in the mid-twentieth century, synthesizing elements from the Austrian School of economics, classical liberalism, and nineteenth century American individualist anarchists Lysander Spooner and Benjamin Tucker ( rejecting their labor theory of value and the normative implications they derived from it ).

The prime evidence for this theory was provided by a descendant of Clarke.

It was the prospect of bowling at this line-up that caused England's 1932 – 33 captain Douglas Jardine to adopt the tactic of fast leg theory, also known as Bodyline.

Jardine insisted that the tactic was legitimate and called it " leg theory " but it was widely disparaged by its opponents, who dubbed it " Bodyline " ( from " on the line of the body ").

Confucianism was particularly strong during the Han Dynasty, whose greatest thinker was Dong Zhongshu, who integrated Confucianism with the thoughts of the Zhongshu School and the theory of the Five Elements.

At the beginning, it was considered a sort of Taoist sect, and there was even a theory about Laozi, founder of Taoism, who went to India and taught his philosophy to Buddha.

Selective investment theory proposes that close social bonds, and associated emotional, cognitive, and neurohormonal mechanisms, evolved in order to facilitate long-term, high-cost altruism between those closely depending on one another for survival and reproductive success.

In its early days, this theory was most strongly associated with the states of Yan and Qi.

The Confucian theory of ethics as exemplified in Lǐ () is based on three important conceptual aspects of life: ceremonies associated with sacrifice to ancestors and deities of various types, social and political institutions, and the etiquette of daily behavior.

A similar type of investigation occurs in many mathematical theories, such as the study of continuous maps ( morphisms ) between topological spaces in topology ( the associated category is called Top ), and the study of smooth functions ( morphisms ) in manifold theory.

The two meanings of critical theory — from different intellectual traditions associated with the meaning of criticism and critique — derive ultimately from the Greek word kritikos meaning judgment or discernment, and in their present forms go back to the 18th century.

Several fields of discrete mathematics, particularly theoretical computer science, graph theory, and combinatorics, are important in addressing the challenging bioinformatics problems associated with understanding the tree of life.

The phrase " Cogito ergo sum " ( I think, therefore I am ) is also commonly associated with Descartes ' theory, because in his own methodological doubt, doubting everything he previously knew in order to start from a blank slate, the first thing that he could not logically bring himself to doubt was his own existence: " I do not exist " would be a contradiction in terms ; the act of saying that one does not exist assumes that someone must be making the statement in the first place.

Electromagnetism is the physical phenomenon associated with the theory of electrodynamics.

In the 1980s, Per Martin-Löf developed intuitionistic type theory ( also called Constructive type theory ), which associated functional programs with constructive proofs of arbitrarily complex mathematical propositions expressed as dependent types.

Fundamental groups can be studied using the theory of covering spaces, since a fundamental group coincides with the group of deck transformations of the associated universal covering space.

This theory ( commonly associated with Jean-Baptiste Lamarck ) is now known to be wrong — the experiences of individuals do not affect the genes they pass to their children.

In mathematics, more specifically in the area of modern algebra known as Galois theory, the Galois group of a certain type of field extension is a specific group associated with the field extension.

More influentially, radical geography emerged in the 1970s and 1980s, drawing heavily on Marxist theory and techniques, and is associated with geographers such as David Harvey and Richard Peet.

Herbert Marcuse (; July 19, 1898 – July 29, 1979 ) was a German Jewish philosopher, sociologist and political theorist, associated with the Frankfurt School of critical theory.

Information theory is closely associated with a collection of pure and applied disciplines that have been investigated and reduced to engineering practice under a variety of rubrics throughout the world over the past half century or more: adaptive systems, anticipatory systems, artificial intelligence, complex systems, complexity science, cybernetics, informatics, machine learning, along with systems sciences of many descriptions.

In information theory, entropy is a measure of the uncertainty associated with a random variable.

I – O psychologists also employ psychometric methods including methods associated with classical test theory ( CTT ), generalizability theory, and item response theory ( IRT ).

In 1894 Dewey joined the newly founded University of Chicago ( 1894 – 1904 ) where he developed his belief in an empirically based theory of knowledge, becoming associated with the newly emerging Pragmatic philosophy.

Ricardo's theory was a predecessor of the modern theory that equilibrium prices are determined solely by production costs associated with " neo-Ricardianism ".

Mutualism is a political and economic theory largely associated with Pierre-Joseph Proudhon.