Page "Amphibian" Paragraph 105

Amphibians have soft bodies and thin skins, lack claws, defensive armour or spines and seem relatively helpless.

Nevertheless they have evolved various defence mechanisms to keep themselves alive.

The first line of defence in salamanders and frogs is the mucous secretion that they produce.

This keeps their skin moist and makes them slippery and difficult to grip.

The secretion is often sticky and distasteful or toxic.

Snakes have been observed yawning and gaping when trying to swallow an African clawed frog ( Xenopus spp.

) which gives the frog an opportunity to escape.

Caecilians have been little studied in this respect but the Cayenne caecilian ( Typhlonectes compressicauda ) produces toxic mucus which has caused the death of predatory fish in a feeding experiment in Brazil.

In some salamanders, the skin is poisonous.

The rough-skinned newt ( Taricha granulosa ) from North America and other members of its genus contain the neurotoxin tetrodotoxin ( TTX ), the most toxic non-protein substance known and almost identical to that produced by pufferfish.

Handling the newts does not cause harm but ingestion of even the most minute amounts of the skin is deadly.

In feeding trials, fish, frogs, reptiles, birds and mammals were all found to be susceptible.

The only predators with some tolerance to the poison are certain populations of common garter snake ( Thamnophis sirtalis ).

In locations where both snake and salamander co-exist, the snakes have developed immunity through genetic changes and they feed on the amphibians with impunity.

Coevolution occurs with the newt increasing its toxic capabilities at the same rate as the snake further develops its immunity.

Some frogs and toads are toxic, the main poison glands being at the side of the neck and under the warts on the back.

These regions are presented to the attacking animal and their secretions may be foul-tasting or cause various physical or neurological symptoms.

Altogether, over two hundred toxins have been isolated from the limited number of amphibian species that have been investigated.