The other was Lemaître's Big Bang theory, advocated and developed by George Gamow, who introduced big bang nucleosynthesis ( BBN ) and whose associates, Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman, predicted the cosmic microwave background radiation ( CMB ).

The basic theory of nucleosynthesis was developed in 1948 by George Gamow, Ralph Asher Alpher and Robert Herman.

* 1949-Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman re-re-estimate the temperature at 28 K.

But shortly thereafter, Alpher and Robert Herman predicted that the afterglow of the big bang would have cooled down after billions of years, filling the universe with a radiation 5 degrees above absolute zero.

Consequently, Alpher and Herman's prediction in support of the big bang was not substantiated until 1964, when Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson made the accidental discovery, for which they were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1978.

After confirmation of the Hubble's law by observation, the two most popular cosmological theories became the Steady State theory of Hoyle, Gold and Bondi, and the big bang theory of Ralph Alpher, George Gamow, and Robert Dicke with a small number of supporters of a smattering of alternatives.

Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman made a scientific prediction in 1948 that we should still be able to observe these red-shifted photons today as an ambient cosmic microwave background radiation ( CMBR ) pervading all space with a temperature of about five Kelvin ( when the CMBR was actually first detected in 1965, its temperature was found to be three Kelvin ).

The medal has been awarded to multiple individuals in the same year: in 1977 it was awarded to Arno Allan Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson " for their discovery of the cosmic microwave radiation ( a remnant of the very early universe ), and their leading role in the discovery of interstellar molecules "; in 1989 to Riccardo Giovanelli and Martha P. Haynes " for the first three-dimensional view of some of the remarkable large-scale filamentary structures of our visible universe "; in 1993 to Ralph Asher Alpher and Robert Herman " for their insight and skill in developing a physical model of the evolution of the universe and in predicting the existence of a microwave background radiation years before this radiation was serendipitously discovered " and in 2001 to R. Paul Butler and Geoffrey Marcy " for their pioneering investigations of planets orbiting other stars via high-precision radial velocities ".

A cosmic microwave background was predicted in 1948 by George Gamow and Ralph Alpher, and by Alpher and Robert Herman as due to the hot big bang model.

With Robert Dicke and others ( nearly two decades after George Gamov, Ralph A. Alpher and Robert C. Herman ), he predicted the cosmic microwave background radiation.

Later the same year, collaborating with Robert Herman, Alpher predicted the temperature of the residual radiation ( known as cosmic background radiation ) resulting from the hypothesized Big Bang .< ref > G.

Alpher and Herman first estimated the temperature of the cosmic microwave background as K, and two years later they re-estimated it as K .</ ref > However, Alpher's predictions concerning the cosmic background radiation were more or less forgotten and they were rediscovered by Robert Dicke and Yakov Zel ' dovich in the early 1960s.

Alpher and Robert Herman were awarded the Henry Draper Medal from the National Academy of Sciences in 1993.

Robert Herman ( August 29, 1914-February 13, 1997 ) was a United States scientist, best known for his work with Ralph Alpher in 1948-50, on estimating the temperature of cosmic microwave background radiation from the Big Bang explosion.

* 1975 Robert Herman and Ralph A. Alpher

* R. A. Alpher and R. Herman, " On the Relative Abundance of the Elements ," Physical Review 74 ( 1948 ), 1577.

* R. A. Alpher, R. Herman, and G. Gamow Nature 162 ( 1948 ), 774

* 1964-A. G. Doroshkevich and Igor Dmitrievich Novikov write an unnoticed paper suggesting microwave searches for the black-body radiation predicted by Gamow, Alpher, and Herman.

Moreover, Alpher and Herman were able to estimate the temperature, but their results were not widely discussed in the community.

R. A. Alpher and R. Herman, " On the Relative Abundance of the Elements ," Physical Review 74 ( 1948 ), 1577.

Alpher and Herman ( the latter, posthumously ) published their own account of their work in cosmology in 2001, Genesis of the Big Bang ( Oxford University Press ).

After learning about this work, a group of physicists from Princeton University interpreted it as background radiation of cosmic origin, but without reference to the two 1948 papers, one by Alpher, Bethe and Gamow ( therefore sometimes called the α-β-γ paper ) and the other by Alpher and Herman.

Nevertheless, the team of Herman and Alpher were eventually recognized for their pioneering contribution.

While attending GWU Alpher met Louise, who was majoring in psychology at night school and working as a day secretary with the State Department.

Alpher and Gamow's theory originally proposed that all atomic nuclei are produced by the successive capture of neutrons, one mass unit at a time.

The humor engendered by the prodigious Gamow may at times have obscured the critical role Alpher played in developing the theory.

** Scientists Ralph Alpher and George Gamow publish the Alpher-Bethe-Gamow paper about the big bang.

The history of Big Bang nucleosynthesis began with the calculations of Ralph Alpher and George Gamow in the 1940s.

Alpher and Gamow would publish the seminal Alpher-Bethe-Gamow paper ( the addition of Bethe as an author was a joke, see the article on the paper ) outlining the theory of light-element production in the early universe.

* R. A. Alpher, H. A. Bethe, G. Gamow, The Origin of Chemical Elements, Physical Review 73 ( 1948 ), 803.

The so-called αβγ paper, in which Alpher and Gamow suggested that the light elements were created by hydrogen ions capturing neutrons in the hot, dense early universe.

* R. A. Alpher, " A Neutron-Capture Theory of the Formation and Relative Abundance of the Elements ," Physical Review 74 ( 1948 ), 1737

Alpher told Joseph D ' Agnese in his interview for Discover Magazine, There are two reasons you do science.

Many scientists felt that Ralph Alpher, who predicted the cosmic microwave background radiation and in 1948 worked out the underpinnings of the Big Bang theory, should have shared in the prize or received one independently.

In 2005, Alpher received the National Medal of Science for his pioneering contributions to understanding of nucleosynthesis, the prediction of the relic radiation from the Big Bang, as well as for a model for the Big Bang.

In science and technology, Columbia alumni include: founder of IBM Herman Hollerith ; inventor of FM radio Edwin Armstrong ; inventor of the nuclear submarine Hyman Rickover ; founder of Google China Kai-Fu Lee ; scientists Stephen Jay Gould, Robert Millikan, Helium – neon laser inventor Ali Javan and Michael Pupin ; chief-engineer of the New York City subway William Barclay Parsons ; philosophers Irwin Edman and Robert Nozick ; and economist Milton Friedman

* 1993 Robert Herman

Punch enjoyed an audience including: Elizabeth Barrett, Robert Browning, Thomas Carlyle, Edward FitzGerald, Charlotte Brontë, Queen Victoria, Prince Albert, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Emily Dickinson, Herman Melville, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and James Russell Lowell.

In a note, Kirby states, " A very abbreviated list of twentieth-century writers on the NT who do not believe that the empty tomb is historically reliable: Marcus Borg, Günther Bornkamm, Gerald Boldock Bostock, Rudolf Bultmann, Peter Carnley, John Dominic Crossan, Stevan Davies, Maurice Goguel, Michael Goulder, Hans Grass, Charles Guignebert, Uta Ranke-Heinemann, Randel Helms, Herman Hendrikx, Roy Hoover, Helmut Koester, Hans Küng, Alfred Loisy, Burton L. Mack, Willi Marxsen, Gerd Lüdemann, Norman Perrin, Robert M. Price, Marianne Sawicki, John Shelby Spong, Howard M. Teeple, and John T.

* Mark Herman, Mark Frost, Robert Kurz Wargaming for Leaders, McGraw-Hill 2009.

* Robert of Ketton and Herman of Carinthia travel throughout France, the Byzantine Empire, and the Crusader States.

The term and metaphor were first used by E. F. Schumacher in his book Small Is Beautiful and are closely identified with Herman Daly, Robert Costanza, the Biosphere 2 project, and the Natural Capitalism economic model of Paul Hawken, Amory Lovins, and Hunter Lovins until recently, when it began to be used by politicians, notably Ralph Nader, Paul Martin Jr., and agencies of the UK government including the London Health Observatory.

In 1984 the Riverside Shakespeare Company of New York City produced a modern dress Julius Caesar set in contemporary Washington, called simply CAESAR !, starring Harold Scott as Brutus, Herman Petras as Caesar, Marya Lowry as Portia, Robert Walsh as Antony, and Michael Cook as Cassius, directed by W. Stuart McDowell at The Shakespeare Center.

In 1969, she had the lead role in another long-running popular production of Mame, from the book by Jerome Lawrence and Robert Edwin Lee, with music and lyrics by Jerry Herman, at the Theatre Royal Drury Lane in the West End of London, arriving for the role on the Liner QE2 from New York.

Herman translated Euclid's Elements around 1140, possibly in collaboration with Robert of Ketton.

Charles Burnett ( 2001 ) postulates that Herman collaborated with Robert of Ketton and Hugo of Santalla on the Liber novem iudicum ( the Book of Nine Judges ), a collection of translations of Arabic astrologers, notably al-Kindi.

Burnett postulates that Renaissance magi merely continued this Hermetic tradition begun by Herman, Robert and Hugh.

Some notable musicians who were members of the orchestra include violinists Samuel Antek, Henry Clifton, Felix Galimir, Josef Gingold, Daniel Guilet ( concertmaster 1952-54 ), Harry Lookofsky, Mischa Mischakoff ( concertmaster 1937-1952 ), Albert Pratz, David Sarser, Oscar Shumsky, Herman Spielberg and Andor Toth ; violists Carlton Cooley, Milton Katims, William Primrose, and Tibor Serly ; cellists Frank Miller, Leonard Rose, Harvey Shapiro and Alan Shulman ; double bassists Homer Mensch and Oscar G. Zimmerman ; flutists Carmine Coppola, Arthur Lora and Paul Renzi ; clarinetists Augustin Duques, Al Gallodoro, David Weber and Alexander Williams ; saxophonist Frankie Trumbauer ; oboists Robert Bloom and Paolo Renzi ; bassoonists Elias Carmen, Benjamin Kohon, William Polisi, Leonard Sharrow and Arthur Weisberg ; French horn players Arthur Berv, Harry Berv, Jack Berv and Albert Stagliano ; and tuba player William Bell, among others.

Pratt has cited authors like Robert Louis Stevenson, James Oliver Curwood, Zane Gray, Kenneth Roberts, Joseph Conrad, Fenimore Cooper, Herman Melville and Jack London as influences, along with cartoonists Lyman Young, Will Eisner, and especially Milton Caniff.

Other American students include Michael and Lora Howard, Herman Kauz, Patt Benton, Carol Yamasaki, Robert Ante, Patrick Watson, Lawrence Galante, Lisa Marcusson, Saul Krotki, Robert Chuckrow, and William C. Phillips.

Significant writers and thinkers in this area include Ben Bagdikian, Noam Chomsky, Edward S. Herman, Armand Mattelart and Robert McChesney.

With professor Robert Herman, he also developed the basis of the two fluid model, a traffic model in traffic engineering for urban networks, in parallel to the two fluid model in Classical Statistical Mechanics.

Robert Bland, John Herman Merivale, and their associates ( 1806 – 1813 ), produced efforts that are often diffuse.