The study of " mutants " – organisms with a changed gene that leads to the organism being different with respect to the so-called " wild type " or normal phenotype.

Population genetics is the study of allele frequency distribution and change under the influence of the four main evolutionary processes: natural selection, genetic drift, mutation and gene flow.

* more recently, compare entire genomes, which permits the study of more complex evolutionary events, such as gene duplication, horizontal gene transfer, and the prediction of factors important in bacterial speciation,

For example, promoter analysis involves the identification and study of sequence motifs in the DNA surrounding the coding region of a gene.

This study constitutes one of the first demonstrations that gene therapy can be effective in treating cancer.

Headed by Dr. Phillipe Leboulche, the study used a lentiviral vector to transduce the human β-globin gene into purified blood and marrow cells obtained from the patient.

Studies over several years covering the key mineral area of the Central Pacific resulted in a technical study on biodiversity, species ranges and gene flow in the abyssal Pacific nodule province, with emphasis on predicting and managing the impacts of deep seabed mining A workshop at Manoa, Hawaii, in October 2007 produced a rationale and recommendations for the establishment of " preservation reference areas " in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, where nodule mining would be prohibited in order to leave the natural environment intact.

2009 compared transcriptional profiles using short-oligonucleotide microarrays ( Affymetrix Porcine GeneChip ) to survey differentially expressed genes between parthenotes ( 2 maternal genomes ) and control fetuses ( 1 maternal, 1 paternal genome ) An intriguing study surveying the transcriptome of murine brain tissues revealed over 1300 imprinted gene loci ( approximately 10-fold more than previously reported ) by Illumina RNA-sequencing ( RNA-Seq ) technology from F1 hybrids resulting from reciprocal crosses.

Although it has morphological similarities with the pygmy killer whale, the false killer whale and the pilot whales, a study of cytochrome b gene sequences by Richard LeDuc indicated that its closest extant relatives are the snubfin dolphins of the genus Orcaella.

When afflicted individuals have an equal chance of being included in a study this is called truncate selection, signifying the inadvertent exclusion ( truncation ) of families who are carriers for a gene.

An objection to the study of the evolution of memes in genetic terms ( although not to the existence of memes ) involves a perceived gap in the gene / meme analogy: the cumulative evolution of genes depends on biological selection-pressures neither too great nor too small in relation to mutation-rates.

Several of the bacterial viruses ( bacteriophage ) that infect E. coli also have been very useful for the study of gene structure and gene regulation ( e. g. phages Lambda and T4 ).

:* Macrostomum lignano, a free-living, marine flatworm, a model organism for the study of stem cells, regeneration, ageing, gene function, and the evolution of sex.

Zebrafish are used to study development, toxicology and toxicopathology, specific gene function and roles of signaling pathways.

Various insertional mutagenesis techniques may also be used to study the function of particular gene.

One study on genetic variations between different species of Drosophila suggests that if a mutation changes a protein produced by a gene, the result is likely to be harmful, with an estimated 70 percent of amino acid polymorphisms having damaging effects, and the remainder being either neutral or weakly beneficial.

A study based on the Dunedin cohort concluded that maltreated children with a low-activity polymorphism in the promoter region of the MAO-A gene were more likely to develop antisocial conduct disorders than maltreated children with the high-activity variant.

The northern blot is a technique used in molecular biology research to study gene expression by detection of RNA ( or isolated mRNA ) in a sample.

A study in Europe suggested that the gene marker is only relevant for East Asians.

A study was conducted where a point mutation was inserted into the gene encoding the chemokine receptor CXCR2 ; mutated cells underwent a malignant transformation due to the expression of CXCR2 in an active conformation despite the absence of chemokine-binding.

According to a study by Menna Jones, " gene flow appears extensive up to ", meaning a high assignment rate to source or close neighbour populations " in agreement with movement data.

This theory is supported by a study into the SLC24A5 gene which found that the allelle associated with light skin in Europe may have originated as recently as 6, 000 – 10, 000 years ago which is in line with the earliest evidence of farming.

It was commonly thought that most individuals were homozygous for the " wild type " allele at most gene loci, and that any alternative ' mutant ' allele was found in homozygous form in a small minority of " affected " individuals, often as genetic diseases, and more frequently in heterozygous form in " carriers " for the mutant allele.

MAC, also called " Mitochondrial Outer Membrane Permeabilization Pore " is regulated by various proteins, such as those encoded by the mammalian Bcl-2 family of anti-apoptopic genes, the homologs of the ced-9 gene found in C. elegans.

According to this research, genetic markers commonly found in modern humans worldwide suggest that today many people carry a gene that evolved as protection against the brain diseases that can be spread by consuming human brain tissue.

To a lesser extent this gene is also found also in T4-like bacteriophages suggesting a common ancestor for these two groups of viruses.

An English family with a severe, heritable language dysfunction was found to have a defective copy of this gene.

In addition, these insect symbionts have similar patterns of genome evolution to those found in true organelles: genome reduction, rapid rates of gene evolution, and bias in nucleotide base composition favoring adenine and thymine, at the expense of guanine and cytosine.

Dr. Naldini's group reasoned that they could use this natural function of microRNA to selectively turn off the identity of their therapeutic gene in cells of the immune system and prevent the gene from being found and destroyed.

They researched the safety of the subretinal delivery of recombinant adeno associated virus ( AAV ) carrying RPE65 gene, and found it yielded positive results, with patients having modest increase in vision, and, perhaps more importantly, no apparent side-effects.

Dr. Naldini's group reasoned that they could use this natural function of microRNA to selectively turn off the identity of their therapeutic gene in cells of the immune system and prevent the gene from being found and destroyed.

The repressor found in the phage lambda is a notable example of the level of control possible over gene expression by a very simple system.

This forms an analogy to the idea of a gene as a single unit of self-replicating information found on the self-replicating chromosome.

A possible link between predisposition to novelty seeking and a genotype of the MAO-A gene has been found.

Another example of an oncogene is the Bcr-Abl gene found on the Philadelphia Chromosome, a piece of genetic material seen in Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia caused by the translocation of pieces from chromosomes 9 and 22.

More than 400 disease-causing mutations have been found in the PAH gene.

The macaque monkey's genome was recently sequenced, and the gene encoding phenylalanine hydroxylase was found to have the same sequence that, in humans, would be considered the PKU mutation.

Usually, degenerate primers are designed by aligning gene sequencing found in GenBank.

* Eosinophil derived neurotoxin is a toxin found in human encoded by the RNASE2 gene.

Such glycine-alanine repeats are also found in nature, for example in silk fibroin ; in particular, certain Epstein-Barr virus gene products bearing this sequence can stall the proteasome, helping the virus propagate by preventing antigen presentation on the major histocompatibility complex.

The gene spans 20 kb, with a non-coding exon 1 and a very long first intron of 10 kb. The coding sequence contains five regions showing a high degree of conservation in vertebrates, predominantly in exons 2, 5, 6, 7 and 8, but the sequences found in invertebrates show only distant resemblance to mammalian TP53.

A link was found between the personality trait of neuroticism and a polymorphism called 5-HTTLPR in the serotonin transporter gene, but this association was not replicated in larger studies.

Initiation of transcription begins with the binding of the enzyme to a promoter sequence in the DNA ( usually found " upstream " of a gene ).

Riboswitches have been found to act as regulators of gene expression, particularly in bacteria, but also in plants and archaea.