These include the number and types of the attributes or variables and the various statistical measures which may be applied to them such as standard deviation and kurtosis.

They were originally identified as outliers to a general trend of decreasing extinction rates during the Phanerozoic, but as more stringent statistical tests have been applied to the accumulating data, the " Big Five " cannot be so clearly defined, but rather appear to represent the largest ( or some of the largest ) of a relatively smooth continuum of extinction events.

The Jeffreys – Lindley paradox shows how different interpretations, applied to the same data set, can lead to different conclusions about the ' statistical significance ' of a result.

When a statistical procedure has been specified in the study protocol, then statistical theory provides well-defined probability statements for the method when applied to all populations that could have arisen from the randomization used to generate the data.

The most commonly applied statistical assumptions are:

Later applied sabermetric statistical models to the study of politics, particularly elections, and published the results on his blog FiveThirtyEight ( later affiliated with The New York Times ).

Historically, one of the first topics in physics where statistical methods were applied was the field of mechanics, which is concerned with the motion of particles or objects when subjected to a force.

" When intermediate rates are present, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics cannot be applied.

The Mismeasure of Man is an analysis of statistical correlation, the mathematics applied by psychologists to establish the validity of IQ tests, and the heritability of intelligence.

Hence, Dr. Gould dismissed the IQ number as an erroneous artifact of the statistical mathematics applied to the raw IQ-test data ; especially because psychometric data can be variously analyzed to produce multiple IQ scores.

The enormous number of vessels involved and the frequency of engagements meant that statistical techniques could be applied to evaluate tactics: an early use of operational research in war.

This group applied quantitative measure, statistical data analyses, and descriptive mathematical models used in the physical sciences to the development of sociology ( DeFleur & Larsen, 1987 ).

* The number of molecules is so large that statistical treatment can be applied.

* Hubbard Lake is the name of a statistical area applied by the U. S. Census Bureau to the populated area surrounding the Hubbard Lake body of water and includes portions of three townships.

When applied to a data set and given a statistical model, maximum-likelihood estimation provides estimates for the model's parameters.

Specific examples of mathematics, statistics, and physics applied to music composition are the use of the statistical mechanics of gases in Pithoprakta, statistical distribution of points on a plane in Diamorphoses, minimal constraints in Achorripsis, the normal distribution in ST / 10 and Atrées, Markov chains in Analogiques, game theory in Duel and Stratégie, group theory in Nomos Alpha ( for Siegfried Palm ), set theory in Herma and Eonta, and Brownian motion in N ' Shima.

For example, deep sky galaxy surveys, such as the Sloan Digital Sky Survey or the 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey, combine line of sight galaxy positions with red shift data to produce three dimensional maps of galaxy clustering across an estimated area over 4 billion light years wide ( a red shift radius of z > 0. 20 ); statistical tests applied to these maps confirm that isotropy applies to different viewpoints within them.

In applied mathematics and theoretical physics, molecular dynamics is a part of the research realm of dynamical systems, ergodic theory, Atomic, molecular, and optical physics and statistical mechanics in general.

Haldane also applied statistical analysis to real-world examples of natural selection, such as the evolution of industrial melanism in peppered moths, and showed that selection coefficients could be larger than Fisher assumed, leading to more rapid adaptive evolution.

Supersymmetry first arose in 1971 in the context of an early version of string theory by Pierre Ramond, John H. Schwarz and André Neveu, but the mathematical structure of supersymmetry has subsequently been applied successfully to other areas of physics ; firstly by Wess, Zumino, and Abdus Salam and their fellow researchers to particle physics, and later to a variety of fields, ranging from quantum mechanics to statistical physics.

In addition, SUSY has been applied to non-quantum statistical mechanics through the Fokker-Planck equation.

Market research, includes social and opinion research, is the systematic gathering and interpretation of information about individuals or organizations using statistical and analytical methods and techniques of the applied social sciences to gain insight or support decision making.

Dianetics predates Hubbard's classification of Scientology as " applied religious philosophy ".

This ruling might not be consistently applied: in 2011, police in Taupo on New Zealand's North Island had to stop using Segways because there is no separate vehicle classification that applies to them, requiring their registration as roadworthy in the same manner as cars.

Molecular analytical techniques developed in the late 20th century are being applied to questions of taxonomic classification.

In the United Kingdom, a non-departmental public body ( NDPB )— often referred to and also known as a Quasi Autonomous Non Governmental Organisation or a quango — is a classification applied by the Cabinet Office, Treasury, Scottish Government and Northern Ireland Executive to certain types of public bodies.

Brown applied to schools, but soon the Court enlarged the concept to other state actions, striking down racial classification in many areas.

Aristotle also applied intensively the classical categorization scheme in his approach to the classification of living beings ( which uses the technique of applying successive narrowing questions such as " Is it an animal or vegetable?

Categories form part of a hierarchical structure when applied to such subjects as taxonomy in biological classification: higher level: life-form level, middle level: generic or genus level, and lower level: the species level.

If another classification is applied, the secondary homonymy may not be produced, and the involved name can be used again ( Art.

* Group 1 ( racing ), a historic ( until 1981 ) classification for Touring car racing, applied to standard touring cars.

It is interdisciplinary in nature, borrowing, adapting and enhancing method and theory from numerous other disciplines such as computer science ( e. g. algorithm and software design, database design and theory ), geoinformation science ( spatial statistics and modeling, geographic information systems ), artificial intelligence research ( supervised classification, fuzzy logic ), ecology ( point pattern analysis ), applied mathematics ( graph theory, probability theory ) and statistics.

Originally developed as a legend to the Soil Map of the World, the classification was applied by United Nations sponsored projects.

The category of newly industrialized country ( NIC ) is a socioeconomic classification applied to several countries around the world by political scientists and economists.

Confusion and controversy also stem from their classification as nanotechnology, which is an active area of laboratory research which has already been applied to the production of real products ; however, there had been, until recently, no research efforts into the actual construction of " molecular assemblers ".

The first volume of L ' Evolution de genres dans l ' histoire de la littérature, lectures in which a formal classification, founded on Darwinism, is applied to the phenomena of literature, appeared in 1890 ; and his later works include a series of studies ( 2 vols, 1894 ) on the evolution of French lyrical poetry during the 10th century, a history of French classic literature begun in 1904, a monograph on Honoré de Balzac ( 1906 ), and various pamphlets of a polemical nature dealing with questions of education, science and religion.

Entropy coding techniques can be applied to communicate the quantization indices from a source encoder that performs the classification stage to a decoder that performs the reconstruction stage.

Studies that compared the names applied to various plants by traditional Oriental herbalists with the classification of the same plants by modern botanists, also showed surprisingly close correspondence.

Sometimes, however, the term topical is defined as applied to a localized area of the body or to the surface of a body part, without necessarily involving target effect of the substance, making the classification rather a variant of the classification based on application location.

His teachings in comparative anatomy were applied to the classification of what he called human races, of which he determined there to be five.

To put this into context, it is important to understand that the " possibly carcinogenic " classification is also applied to coffee, gasoline engine exhaust and pickled vegetables, and is often used for agents that require further study.

In practice, however, classification is applied to finite patterns, and small imperfections may be ignored.

A microcar is the smallest automobile classification, usually applied to very small cars ( smaller than city cars ).

Werner applied superposition in a classification similar to that of Johann Gottlob Lehmann.

In January 1951, the classification was revised to 6P ; this was revised again to 6P5F in November 1955, but the latter change was not applied to the locomotives ' cabsides, which continued to show 6P.