Haitian tradition holds that Dessalines was transported to Saint-Domingue as a slave, but most historians believe that he was born in Saint-Domingue to enslaved African parents.

Among the best-known people who have attended the University of Pisa are Italian Presidents Giovanni Gronchi and Carlo Azeglio Ciampi ; Haitian President René Préval ; Nicaraguan President Adan Cardenas ; Pope Clement XII ; Italian Prime Ministers Sidney Sonnino, Giuliano Amato and Massimo D ' Alema ; Somali Prime Minister Ali Mohammed Ghedi ; Italian political leaders Carlo Sforza, Paolo Emilio Taviani, Alessandro Natta, Enrico Letta, Marcello Pera, Fabio Mussi and Sandro Bondi ; Italian Constitutional Court Judge Sabino Cassese ; Roman Catholic Cardinals Pietro Accolti, Benedetto Accolti the Younger, Francesco Barberini, Francesco Martelli and Bandino Panciatici ; Roman Catholic Archbishop Giovanni Battista Rinuccini ; Nobel Laureate in Literature Giosuè Carducci ; Nobel Laureates in Physics Enrico Fermi and Carlo Rubbia ; anatomist Atto Tigri ; art historian and curator Carolyn Christov-Bakargiev ; author Antonio Tabucchi ; civil engineer Henry Willey Reveley ; computer scientist Roberto Di Cosmo ; diplomats Carlo Andrea Pozzo di Borgo and Marcello Spatafora ; director and screenwriter Mario Monicelli ; economist Luigi Bodio ; egyptologist Ippolito Rosellini ; electron microscopist Clara Franzini-Armstrong ; geneticist Guido Pontecorvo ; historians Camillo Porzio and Carlo Ginzburg ; intellectual Adriano Sofri ; international civil servant Francesco Cappè ; journalists Lando Ferretti and Tiziano Terzani ; jurists Piero Calamandrei, Francesco Carrara and Antonio Cassese ; linguists Stefano Arduini and Luigi Rizzi ; manager Pier Francesco Guarguaglini ; mathematicians Bonaventura Cavalieri, Giovanni Ceva, Enrico Betti, Guido Fubini, Vito Volterra and Luigi Fantappiè ; neuroscientist Emilio Bizzi ; philosophers Giovanni Gentile and Anna Camaiti Hostert ; physicians Francesco Redi, Vincenzo Chiarugi and François Carlo Antommarchi ; physicists Adolfo Bartoli, Luigi Puccianti, Antonio Pacinotti, Temistocle Calzecchi-Onesti, Franco Rasetti and Luca Gammaitoni ; playwright and librettist Giacinto Andrea Cicognini ; racing car and engine designer Carlo Chiti ; surgeon Andrea Vaccá Berlinghieri ; tenor Andrea Bocelli ; writer Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi.

Some historians situated their studies of gender and race within a class analysis: for example, C. L. R. James, a Marxist who wrote about the struggles of blacks in the Haitian Revolution.

Thomas Madiou, Madiou, one of Haïti's most famous historians, writing in the middle of the 19th century deduced that his altimate goal was to become Govenor General of the island, autonomous from France and Napoleon Bonaparte, this was thus the reason why General Toussaint exiled him back to France, Toussaint felt that Sonthonax was using their plight to further his own agenda ( power grab ). Sonthonax is considered a controversial figure in Haitian history because of his duplicitous nature, his intetions were never clear and he was not trusted by the black population.

These international troops have been criticized for cooperating with rebel forces, refusing to disarm them, and integrating former military and death-squad ( FRAPH ) members into the re-militarized Haitian National Police force following the coup.

In the aftermath of the 1994 restoration of constitutional governance, Haitian officials have indicated their commitment to economic reform through the implementation of sound fiscal and monetary policies and the enactment of legislation mandating the modernization of state-owned enterprises.

The regular Haitian Army, Navy, and Air Force still exist on paper and have not been constitutionally abolished.

Syncretism also works the other way in Haitian Vodou and many Catholic saints have become Loa in their own right, most notably St. Philomena, St. Michael the Archangel, St. Jude, and St. John the Baptist.

In Haitian Vodou and related African diasporic traditions, one way that those who participate or practice can have a spiritual experience is by being possessed by the lwa ( or Loa ).

Famous historic slave rebellions have been led by the Roman slave Spartacus ; the thrall Tunni who rebelled against the Swedish monarch Ongentheow, a rebellion that needed Danish assistance to be quelled ; the poet-prophet Ali bin Muhammad, who led imported east African slaves in Iraq during the Zanj Rebellion against the Abbasid Caliphate in the ninth century ; Granny Nanny of the Maroons who rebelled against the British in Jamaica ; the Haitian Revolution, the only slave revolt which led to the founding of a country ; Denmark Vesey in South Carolina, USA ; and Madison Washington during the Creole case in 19th century America.

Balaguer frequently played up Peña's Haitian ancestry to his advantage ; Dominicans historically have a deep fear and mistrust of anyone with Haitian blood.

Conyers expressed concern that this silence was due to the CIA's connections to these military officers dating back to the creation of the Haitian Intelligence service known as SIN, as Alan Nairn's research has shown: " We have turned a very deaf ear to what is obviously a moving force ... it leads you to wonder if our silence is because we knew this was going on and of our complicity in drug activity ..." Nairn in particular alleged that the CIA's connections to these drug traffickers in the junta not only dated to the creation of SIN, but were ongoing during and after the coup.

His role in the Haitian Revolution and decision to reinstate slavery in France's oversea colonies are controversial and have an impact on his reputation.

It is Ogun who is said to have planted the idea in the heads of, led and given power to the slaves for the Haitian Revolution of 1804.

Traditionally in their Kongo context they are all associated with water, but in the Haitian Vodoun context they have wide ranging associations.

Discovering that Mad had a grand total of one Haitian subscriber, Gaines arranged to have the group driven to the person's house.

The ACS tried to negotiate to have the Haitian government pay transportation costs for the emigrants.

Voodoo dolls are not a feature of Haitian Vodou religion, but have been portrayed as such in popular culture, and stereotypical voodoo dolls are sold to tourists in Haiti.

Recent years have seen a rise in popularity for Haitian Hip-Hop artists such as Barikad Crew and Jimmy O.

Other Haitian hip hop artists have yet to evolve.

On August 5, 2010, Jean filed for candidacy in the 2010 Haitian presidential election, although the Electoral Commission subsequently ruled him ineligible to stand as he had not met the requirement to have been resident in Haiti for five years.

As a result, hundreds of thousands of Haitians have migrated to the Dominican Republic, with some estimates speaking of 800, 000 Haitians in the country, while some put the Haitian – born population as high as one million.

Haiti also denies them nationality ( Haiti's Constitution states in Title II, Article 11 that " Any person born of a Haitian father or Haitian mother who are themselves native-born Haitians and have never renounced their nationality possesses Haitian nationality at the time of birth.

Sanibel also appears in another tale, this one involving Gaspar's ally-turned-rival Black Caesar, said to have been a former Haitian slave who escaped during the Haitian Revolution to become a pirate.

An estimated 30, 000-40, 000 Haitian laborers, known as braceros, went annually to the Oriente Province of Cuba between 1913 and 1931.

On January 12, 2010, Haiti suffered a devastating earthquake, magnitude 7. 0 with a death toll estimated by the Haitian government at over 300, 000, and by non-Haitian sources from 50, 000 to 220, 000.

However, farmers feared that they were being given seeds that would " threaten local varieties " and an estimated 8-12, 000 farmers attended a protest of the donation on June 4, 2010 organized by a Haitian farmers ' association, the Peasant Movement of Papay, where a small pile of seeds was symbolically burned.

A UN base was reportedly a source for the 2010 Haitian cholera outbreak, which, as of early December 2010, had killed an estimated 2, 120 people according to the Haitian government.

* Was constantly targeted because of his Haitian ancestry, a fact that his followers vehemently denied at each electoral campaign, albeit Peña Gómez himself never denied nor confirmed his true origins.

When Greenpeace warned the Haitian government of the true nature of the waste, Haitian commerce minister ordered the crew to reload the ash but the ship slipped away.

The first of these events was the arrival of a significant number of French citizens, fleeing the Haitian Revolution of 1792-1804.

The Marassa are somewhat different from standard Loa, both on a level above them, and counted in their number, they are both twins, and yet they number three, they are male and female, and both male and both female-an example of the Haitian worldview's capacity to retain two seemingly contradictory concepts.

A large number of Haitian women, often arriving with several health problems, cross the border to Dominican soil during their last weeks of pregnancy to obtain much-needed medical attention for childbirth, since Dominican public hospitals do not refuse medical services based on nationality or legal status.

A significant number of Afro-Cubans as well as the biracial Cubans speak Haitian Creole.

Antillean Creole is related to Haitian Creole, but has a number of distinctive features ; they are mutually intelligible.

French fire killed a number of soldiers in the Haitian column, but the soldiers closed ranks and clambered past their dead, singing.

French programming is rarer ; despite being the fourth-most-popular language in number of speakers, its radio reach consists of one station each in Miami and southern New Jersey ( both serving the Haitian diaspora ) and several stations in Cajun Louisiana ; areas of northern Maine ( where French is also widely spoken ) rely on stations in Canada ( Quebec and New Brunswick ) for francophone broadcasts.

The University again closed its doors in 1822 due to the fact that a great number of students were recruited for military service on order of the Haitian regime governing the nation.

In addition to receiving grants of support from national agencies such as the Lannan Foundation and the National Endowment for the Arts, Callaloo has garnered a number of national honors, including the best special issue of a journal from the Council of Editors for Learned Journals for " The Haitian Issues " in 1992 ( Volume 15. 2 & 3: Haiti: the Literature and Culture Parts I & II ); honorable mention for the " Best Special Issue of a Journal " in 2001 from the Professional / Scholarly Publishing ( PSP ) Division of the American Association ( Volume 24. 1: The Confederate Flag Controversy: A Special Section ); and recognition for the Winter 2002 issue from the Council of Editors for Learned Journals as one of the best special issues of that year ( Volume 25. 1: Jazz Poetics ).

A large number of spirits or deities ( lwa ) exist in Haitian and Louisiana Voodoo.

The dance was of Haitian origin.

Another key event was the Haitian Revolution in nearby Saint-Domingue, from 1791 to 1804.

That clean sheet stretch was ended by Haitian soccer player Manno Sanon's beautiful goal during the 1974 World Cup.

A 1795 slave rebellion inspired by the Haitian Revolution very nearly succeeded, and was crushed with significant military intervention.

In the last quarter of the 20th century, the base was used to house Cuban and Haitian refugees intercepted on the high seas.

However, each act of brutality was repaid by the Haitian rebels.

By Haitian standards, Magloire's rule was firm, but not harsh: he jailed political opponents, including Fignolé, and shut down their presses when their protests grew too strident, but he allowed labor unions to function, although they were not permitted to strike.

The period between the fall of Magloire and the election of Duvalier in September 1957 was a chaotic one, even by Haitian standards.

" The election was followed several months later by the Haitian presidential election, 1988, which was boycotted by almost all the previous candidates, and saw turnout of just 4 %.

Aristide's radical populist policies and the violence of his bands of supporters alarmed many of the country's elite, and, in September 1991, he was overthrown in the 1991 Haitian coup d ' état, which brought General Raoul Cédras to power.

Although Aristide accepted the plan, it was rejected by the opposition, which mostly consisted of Haitian businessmen and former members of the army ( who sought to reinstate the military following Aristide's disbandment of it ).

In 2012 it was reported that confidential agreements and negotiations had been entered into by the Haitian government granting licenses for exploration or mining of gold and associated metals such as copper for over 1, 000 square miles in the mineralized zone stretching from east to west across northern Haiti.

The name Haïti was adopted by Haitian revolutionary Jean-Jacques Dessalines as the official name of independent Saint-Domingue, as a tribute to the Amerindian predecessors.

He also produced a compilation of Haitian music called Konbit: Burning Rhythms of Haiti that was released in 1989.

The artist was twenty-one years old when his series of paintings of the Haitian general Toussaint L ’ Ouverture was shown in an exhibit of African American artists at the Baltimore Museum of Art.

* General Gracia Jacques, a supporter of François Duvalier (" Papa Doc ") ( 1907 – 1971 ), Haitian dictator, whose body was exhumed and ritually beaten to ' death ' in 1986.

Another hypothetical was the staging of the Haitian struggle for independence as depicted in Anatolii Vinogradov's The Black Consul, influenced as well by John Vandercook's Black Majesty.

The psychosis induced by the drug and psychological trauma was hypothesised by Davis to re-inforce culturally-learned beliefs and to cause the individual to reconstruct their identity as that of a zombie, since they " knew " they were dead, and had no other role to play in the Haitian society.

* One of the most successful slave uprisings was the Haitian Revolution, which began in 1791 and was eventually led by Toussaint L ' Ouverture, culminating in the independent black republic of Haiti.

It was ceded to France in 1795, captured by rebellious Haitian slaves in 1801, recovered by France in 1802, recovered by Spain in 1809.

Santo Domingo was again the capital of a free nation, when Dominicans gained their independence from Haitian rule on February 27, 1844 led by their national hero Juan Pablo Duarte.