Some 20th-century ethnologists, like Julian Steward, have instead argued that such similarities reflected similar adaptations to similar environments ( see cultural evolution ).

" A prominent figure in the sceptical philosophical tradition and a strong empiricist, he argued against the existence of innate ideas, concluding instead that humans have knowledge only of things they directly experience.

This explanation may imply that IQ tests do not necessarily measure a general intelligence factor, especially not Raven's as often argued, but instead may measure different types of intelligence that are developed by different experiences ( this argument is against the notion of an underlying general intelligence, or g factor ).

Other biblical scholars have argued that rather than being connected with Heth, son of Canaan, instead the Anatolian land of Hatti was mentioned in Old Testament literature and apocrypha as " Kittim " ( Chittim ), a people said to be named for a son of Javan.

Heilbrun argued that men have for centuries completely misinterpreted Gertrude, accepting at face value Hamlet's view of her instead of following the actual text of the play.

Some commentators have argued the story of the first three kings must have been originally planned as a history of Persia and the story of Xerxes, later added to it instead is a history of the Persian Wars.

On his part, Emmerich de Vattel argued instead for the equality of states as articulated by 18th century natural law and suggested that the law of nations was composed of custom and law on the one hand, and natural law on the other.

Polk argued instead for extending the Missouri Compromise line to the Pacific Ocean, which would prohibit the expansion of slavery above 36 ° 30 ' west of Missouri, but allow it below that line if approved by eligible voters in the territory.

Others, such as Koskenniemi, have argued that none of these humanist and scholastic thinkers can be understood to have founded international law in the modern sense, instead placing its origins in the post-1870 period.

In the mid-20th century, scholars such as Joshua Prawer, R. C. Smail, Meron Benvenisti, and Claude Cahen argued instead that the crusaders lived totally segregated from the native inhabitants, who were thoroughly Arabicized and / or Islamicized and were a constant threat to the foreign crusaders.

His enthusiastic support for the nationalist party earned him the suspicion of some of the communists ; he was even elected an alternate member of the Kuomintang Central Executive Committee, and in February 1924 put forward four resolutions that argued that power in the party was too centralized among a few cadres in Canton, and that power should instead he decentralized to urban and rural bureaus.

In 1992 a Draft Code of Conduct for Transnational Corporations was proposed at the Rio Earth Summit by the UN Centre for Transnational Corporations ( UNCTC ), but the Business Council for Sustainable Development ( BCSD ) together with the International Chamber of Commerce ( ICC ) argued successfully for self-regulation instead.

Political leaders in Singapore argued instead for the equality of all citizens, with places in universities, government contracts, political appointments, etc., going to the most deserving candidates, rather than to those chosen on the basis of connections or ethnic background ( It is worth noting that Lee Kuan Yew was originally a Fabian Socialist and opposed racism ).

Some critics, such as philosophers Roy Childs, Norman P. Barry, and Chandran Kukathas, have argued that Objectivist ethics are consistent with anarcho-capitalism instead of minarchism.

Swedenborg however argued that for people with less intelligence than the king such a big base would be too difficult and instead proposed 8 as the base.

Augustine, in his City of God, argued, instead, that God could not do anything that would make God non-omnipotent:

He argued instead we should return to pre-modern thinkers for answers to contemporary issues.

Duns Scotus argued strongly against both nominalism and conceptualism, arguing instead for Scotist realism, a medieval response to the conceptualism of Abelard.

Pauline Peters argued that property systems are not isolable from the social fabric, and notions of property may not be stated as such, but instead may be framed in negative terms: for example the taboo system among Polynesian peoples.

In an article originally published in The New York Review of Books, Singer argued that the protests dramatically increased the amount of coverage he got: " instead of a few hundred people hearing views at lectures in Marburg and Dortmund, several millions read about them or listened to them on television ".

Petrarch argued instead that God had given humans their vast intellectual and creative potential to be used to their fullest.

Similarly, they rejected the Redstockings view that women submitted only out of necessity or The Feminists ' implicit view that they submitted out of cowardice, but instead argued that social conditioning simply led most women to accept a submissive role as " right and natural ".

Acknowledging that copyright could no longer be reasonably argued to be a perpetual right, Talfourd instead campaigned for copyright to exist for the life of the author, with an additional 60 years after that.

Contemporary chroniclers suggested that Henry argued that it would be in Stephen's own best interests to release the Empress and concentrate instead on attacking Robert, and Stephen may have seen Robert, not the Empress, as his main opponent at this point in the conflict.

An association of law schools had argued that allowing military recruiting at their institutions compromised their ability to exercise their free speech rights in opposition to discrimination based on sexual orientation as represented by DADT.

It was argued that the associated increases in inequity and greater racial stratification in schools nullified the educational gains.

Nobel Prize winning economist Milton Friedman argued for the modern concept of vouchers in the 1950s, stating that competition would improve schools and cost efficiency.

Unlike other Indian schools of philosophy, the Cārvākas argued that there is nothing wrong with sensual indulgence.

Objectivists have argued against faith-based initiatives, displaying religious symbols in government facilities, and the teaching of " intelligent design " in public schools.

In classical 18th century patriotism, loyalty to the State was chiefly considered in contrast to loyalty to the Church, and it was argued that clerics should not be allowed to teach in public schools as their patrie was heaven, so that they could not inspire love of the homeland in their students.

Louis Althusser argued that civil organizations such as church, schools, and the family are part of an " ideological state apparatus " which complements the " repressive state apparatus " ( such as police and military ) in reproducing social relations.

He argued that the higher standards of Swiss schools, including a longer school day and year, combined with an approach stressing student choice and academic specialization produced superior results.

Carl L. Bankston III and Stephen J. Caldas, in their books A Troubled Dream: The Promise and Failure of School Desegregation in Louisiana ( 2002 ) and Forced to Fail: The Paradox of School Desegregation ( 2005 ), argued that continuing racial inequality in the larger American society had undermined efforts to force schools to desegregate.

They argued that such standards were not harmful to Chinese Americans, and were necessary to avoid resegregation of schools.

He suggested that there had been a division into two primary schools of study of generations until that time: positivists, such as Comte who measured social change in fifteen to thirty year life spans, which he argued reduced history to “ a chronological table .” The other school, the “ romantic-historical ” was represented by Dilthey and Martin Heidegger.

The NAACP argued that, although schools were not officially segregated ( i. e., white only ), the city of Detroit and surrounding counties had enacted policies to increase racial segregation in schools.

Some have protested that such rules violate the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the " freedom of thought, belief and conscience " clause in the Constitution of Japan, but the Board has argued that since schools are government agencies, their employees have an obligation to teach their students how to be good Japanese citizens.

David Willetts, former shadow education secretary, argued that because middle-class parents now invest so much in preparing their children for the tests, grammar schools no longer offer opportunities to gifted children from poorer backgrounds.

The development of academy schools in England has reinvigorated the debate on selection, since it is sometimes argued ( see academy schools ) that some academies are using covert pupil selection.

Campaigners to establish a school system such as the National Education League had argued that schools were for children " not otherwise receiving education " and the 1870 act specified " a reasonable excuse for non-attendance at school: 1.

He also argued that learned Muslims should not blindly follow the four classical schools of Islamic law but instead engage in ijtihad themselves.

She argued for an exploration of the possibility of drug legalization and backed the distribution of contraceptives in schools.

Dr. Howe was successful in his attempt to educate the mentally disabled, but this led to other problems, as many then argued that the disabled did so well in schools like Dr. Howe's that they should remain permanently incarcerated there.

Even traditional comprehensive schools may be effectively selective because only wealthier families can afford to live in their catchment area and it may be argued that the gap in performance between state schools is much larger than that between the better state and grammar schools and the independent sector.