Walter Kaufmann argues in From Shakespeare to Existentialism that, though Jaspers was certainly indebted to Kierkegaard and Nietzsche, he was closest to Kant's philosophy.

Cassirer argues that while Kant's " Critique of Pure Reason " emphasizes human temporality and finitude, he also sought to situate human cognition within a broader conception of humanity.

Against Kant's critical project Maritain argues that epistemology is reflexive ; you can only defend a theory of knowledge in light of knowledge you have already attained.

Similar to Immanuel Kant's universalizability principle, Singer argues that if it is acceptable for one person in a particular situation to take-or not take-an action, then it is acceptable for any person in that particular situation to do the same.

The book also includes an essay by Leonard Peikoff in which he argues against Immanuel Kant's theory of analytic propositions and synthetic propositions.

Raymond Williams argues that there is no unique and or individual aesthetic object which can be extrapolated from the art world, but that there is a continuum of cultural forms and experience of which ordinary speech and experiences may signal as art.

Karl Popper argues that a preference for simple theories need not appeal to practical or aesthetic considerations.

Dick Hebdige argues that the punk subculture shares the same " radical aesthetic practices " as Dada and surrealism:

He argues " A poem by Donne or Marvell does not depend for its success on outside knowledge that we bring to it ; it is richly ambiguous yet harmoniously orchestrated, coherent in its own special aesthetic terms " ( Leitch 2001 ).

In " The Logic of the Cultural Sciences " ( 1942 ) Cassirer argues that objective and universal validity can not only be achieved in the sciences, but also in practical, cultural, moral, and aesthetic phenomenon.

; 1897 ) is an essay by Leo Tolstoy in which he argues against numerous aesthetic theories which define art in terms of the good, truth, and especially beauty.

S. T. Joshi describes several subdivisions of the weird tale: supernatural horror ( or fantastique ), the ghost story, quasi science fiction, fantasy, and ambiguous horror fiction and argues that " the weird tale " is primarily the result of the philosophical and aesthetic predispositions of the authors associated with this type of fiction.

Johnson argues that his and Lakoff's recent research ( presented in their 1999 book Philosophy in the Flesh ) on the role of such bodily schemas in cognition and language shows the ways in which aesthetic aspects of experience structure every dimension of our experience and understanding, such as in our ethical reasoning ( as in Lakoff's book Moral Imagination ).

In other words, Tedlock argues that by visually representing oral performance features in the written texts, ethnopoetic methods more accurately convey the aesthetic qualities of the performance than uniformly formatted text in prose paragraphs ever could.

In it he argues that " aesthetic obedience is required of everyone by the Lord-artist or not.

Swift however, Landa argues, is not merely criticizing economic maxims but also addressing the fact that England was denying Irish citizens their natural rights and dehumanizing them by viewing them as a mere commodity.

Latour suggests that about 90 % of contemporary social criticism in academia displays one of two approaches which he terms “ the fact position and the fairy position .” ( p. 237 ) The fact position is anti-fetishist, arguing that “ objects of belief ” ( e. g., religion, arts ) are merely concepts onto which power is projected ; the “ fairy position ” argues that individuals are dominated, often covertly and without their awareness, by external forces ( e. g., economics, gender ).

The DPP argues that its efforts to promote a Taiwanese national identity are merely an effort to normalize a Taiwanese identity repressed during years of authoritarian Kuomintang rule.

In Republic by Plato, the character Thrasymachus argues that justice is the interest of the strong — merely a name for what the powerful or cunning ruler has imposed on the people.

Halliday argues that language does not merely to reflect social structure.

And A. R. Braunmuller ( not an Oxfordian ), in the New Cambridge edition of the play, finds the 1605-06 theory inconclusive and merely argues for a date of composition no earlier than 1603.

Although one can see an apple and its redness, the critic argues, those things merely participate in, or are copies of, the forms.

Dumézil argues that with the advent of the Republic, Jupiter became the only king of Rome ( no longer merely the first of the great gods ).

In effect, Friedman's model argues that current fiscal spending creates as much of a drag on the economy by increased interest rates as it creates present consumption: that it has no real effect on total demand, merely that of shifting demand from the investment sector ( I ) to the consumer sector ( C ).

Smullyan argues that the paradox is akin to the statement " I know a man who is both five feet tall and six feet tall ," in effect claiming that the " paradox " is merely a contradiction, not a true paradox at all, as the two axioms above are mutually exclusive.

As Stephen Roy Miller argues in his 1998 edition of A Shrew ( although he does so in support of his adaptation theory ), " the differences between the texts are substantial and coherent enough to establish that there was deliberate revision in producing one text out of the other ; hence A Shrew is not merely a poor report ( or ' bad quarto ') of The Shrew.

Ian MacDonald, in his book Revolution in the Head, argues that The Beatles was the album in which the band's cryptic messages to its fan base became not merely vague but intentionally and perhaps dangerously open-ended, citing oblique passages in songs like " Glass Onion " ( e. g., " the walrus was Paul ") and " Piggies " (" what they need's a damn good whacking ").

While traditional psychologists specializing in close relationships have focused on relationship dysfunction, positive psychology argues that relationship health is not merely the absence of relationship dysfunction.

Along similar lines, Michael F. Brown argues that the Aguaruna of Peru see magic as merely a type of technology, no more supernatural than their physical tools.

Huxley argues that those who have, “ modified their merely human mode of being ,” and have thus been able to comprehend “ more than merely human kind and amount of knowledge ” have also achieved this enlightened state.

Leviticus argues that the Jubilee existed because the land was the possession of Yahweh, and its current occupiers were merely aliens or tenants, and therefore the land shouldn't be sold forever.

" Psychiatrist Hamid Tavakoli argues that the BPS model should be avoided because it unintentionally promotes an artificial distinction between biology and psychology, and merely causes confusion in psychiatric assessments and training programs, and that ultimately it has not helped the cause of trying to destigmatize mental health.

In his introduction, Crowley argues that the work of demonic evocation is merely a form of psychological self-exploration.

He argues formalism should be conceptually rethought, not in terms of merely whether it is a good or bad thing, but rather in terms of how language both can and should be used to restrict the power of decisionmakers in the decisionmaking process.

On the other hand, Thomson argues that an essential difference between the original trolley problem and this version with the fat man, is that in the first case, you merely deflect the harm, whereas in the second case, you have to do something to the fat man to save the five.

Danby argues, however, that when Hal rejects Falstaff he is not reforming, as is the common view, but merely turning from one social level to another, from Appetite to Authority, both of which are equally part of the corrupt society of the time.

Taiwan social-politics critic Lung Ying-Tai argues that Asian values are merely a doublespeak on suppressing universal values of freedom of speech and human rights.

Nussbaum argues the harm principle, which supports the legal ideas of consent, the age of majority and privacy, protects citizens while the " politics of disgust " is merely an unreliable emotional reaction with no inherent wisdom.

Yarlott argues that the war represents the penalty for seeking pleasure, or simply the confrontation of the present by the past:

Jim Miller, editor of Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock & Roll, argues that " On one level, Led Zeppelin represents the final flowering of the sixties ' psychedelic ethic, which casts rock as passive sensory involvement ".

This traditional view, that the Epistola represents a contradiction of the letter to Æthelberht, has been challenged by the historian and theologian George Demacopoulos, who argues that the letter to Æthelberht was mainly meant to encourage the King in spiritual matters, while the Epistola was sent to deal with purely practical matters, and thus the two do not contradict each other.

Kierkegaard argues that individuals who can overcome the levelling process are stronger for it and that it represents a step in the right direction towards " becoming a true self.

This position argues that the nature of reality is based only in our minds or ideas, and represents one of several divergent interpretations of Kant ’ s legacy.

This, as Robin Waterfield argues, represents the social conflict between two generations of men in Athens, especially in the decade from 425 to 415 BC.

" Such a view finds general critical consensus, viewing the vignettes as allegorical appropriations of the book's characters and themes ; for example, Schwartz argues that " The Willingdone Museyroom " episode represents the book's " archetypal family drama in military-historical terms.

He represents the materialist position against which Berkeley ( through Philonous ) argues.

Thomas Madden represents a view almost diametrically opposed to that of Asbridge ; while the crusade was certainly linked to church reform and attempts to assert papal authority, he argues that it was most importantly a pious struggle to liberate fellow Christians, who, Madden claims, " had suffered mightily at the hands of the Turks ".

He argues that the character of Caligari represents a tyrannical figure, to whom the only alternative is social chaos ( represented by the fairground ).

Isobel Armstrong's work represents one way to do such scholarship ; she argues that Barbauld, like other Romantic women poets:

Wilcox argues that the basement is a representation of the subconscious, and that young carefree zombie Jack O ' Toole ( Channon Roe ) represents Xander's id, his inner desires.

" The dual Xanders ", Stephens argues, " represents the duality in all of us.

In the example of Frankie, she argues, we can see that " the image of the tomboy can be tolerated only within a narrative of blossoming womanhood ; within such a narrative, tomboyism represents a resistance to adulthood itself rather than to adult femininity.

Francesco Bennozo argues that the poem represents ancient fears of the forest and its magical powers.

Black argues that SPECTRE represents " evil unconstrained by ideology " and it partly came about because the decline of the British Empire led to a lack of certainty in Fleming's mind.

Leigh Alexander argues that this represents a shift towards more Western horror aesthetics, which emphasize action and gore rather than the psychological experience of Japanese horror.

Mario de Valdes y Cocom, a historian of the African diaspora, argues that the sloping arm of the chair also represents Monte le Verna, which Saint Bonaventure, a Christian Neo-Platonic philosopher, visited and was inspired to write his Itenerarium.

In turn, Daniel Dennett argues in Darwin's Dangerous Idea that this represents a " universal acid " that may be applied to a number of seemingly disparate areas of philosophical inquiry ( consciousness and free will in particular ).

" John Cort argues that this means the master in the story represents God, and the " money " represents his grace ; it is " spiritual wealth ".

That is, Critchley argues that what Snow said represents a resurfacing of a discussion current in the mid-nineteenth century.

While maintaining that he has proceeded from the basic framework of communist scientific theory building off of the theoretical foundation chiefly developed by Marx, Lenin and Mao in its first stage, Avakian argues that this represents a major theoretical rupture within that framework.

Matheson argues that this represents a " lack of concern for literal accuracy that the reader cannot help but suspect is characteristic of the entire work ".