David Kusche pointed out a common problem with many of the Bermuda Triangle stories and theories: " Say I claim that a parrot has been kidnapped to teach aliens human language and I challenge you to prove that is not true.

However, there is wide dispute whether Popper's description of " historicism " is an accurate description of Hegel, or more a reflection of his own philosophical antagonists, including Marxist-Leninist thought, then widely held as posing a challenge to the philosophical basis of the West, as well as theories such as Spengler's which drew predictions about the future course of events from the past.

" However, whilst a few historians chose to challenge her theories, most simply chose to ignore them as irrelevant, and as later folklorist and vocal critic of the theory Jacqueline Simpson noted, " Normally this is an effective technique for ensuring the oblivion of bad books, but in this case it backfired, since it left her theory free to spread, seemingly unchallenged, among an eager public.

The main challenge facing propensity theories is to say exactly what propensity means.

These observations pose a challenge to current theories of lightning, especially with the discovery of the clear signatures of antimatter produced in lightning.

Despite modifications to the hypothesis and occasional forays into scientific conferences, the AAH has neither been accepted as a mainstream theory nor managed to venture a genuine challenge to orthodox theories of human evolution.

* None of the old theories successfully address the challenge of developing “ leadership presence ”; that certain “ something ” in leaders that commands attention, inspires people, wins their trust and makes followers want to work with them.

Some of the significant achievements of early Muslim philosophers included the development of a strict science of citation, the isnad or " backing "; the development of a method of open inquiry to disprove claims, the ijtihad, which could be generally applied to many types of questions ( although which to apply it to is an ethical question ); the willingness to both accept and challenge authority within the same process ; recognition that science and philosophy are both subordinate to morality, and that moral choices are prior to any investigation or concern with either ; the separation of theology ( kalam ) and law ( shariah ) during the early Abbasid period, a precursor to secularism ; the distinction between religion and philosophy, marking the beginning of secular thought ; the beginning of a peer review process ; early ideas on evolution ; the beginnings of the scientific method, an important contribution to the philosophy of science ; the introduction of temporal modal logic and inductive logic ; the beginning of social philosophy, including the formulation of theories on social cohesion and social conflict ; the beginning of the philosophy of history ; the development of the philosophical novel and the concepts of empiricism and tabula rasa ; and distinguishing between essence and existence.

Constructivism or social constructivism has been described as a challenge to the dominance of neo-liberal and neo-realist international relations theories.

In her subsequent analysis of " Inscription for an Ice-House " she points to Barbauld's challenge of Edmund Burke's characterization of the sublime and the beautiful and Adam Smith's economic theories in the Wealth of Nations as evidence for this interpretation.

When academics challenge pseudoarchaeologists and criticise their theories, many pseudoarchaeologists see it as further evidence that their own ideas are right, and that they are simply being suppressed by members of this academic conspiracy.

As a result of the resurgence of these two early prototypes, the theories that proclaim the 20th-century variants to represent the zenith of sarod design, face a serious and credible challenge.

At invitationals, teams have the opportunity to test out particular case theories and improve as competitors before facing the challenge and pressure of regular season competition.

) Hessen's paper was a lobbying tactic: Party philosophers would not challenge the accuracy of Newton's theories, and to show them as being motivated by bourgeois concerns would, in Hessen's eyes, show that scientific validity could exist whatever the motivations were for undertaking it.

At a diameter of about one billion light years it is much larger than any other known void and represents a challenge for current theories of the origins of the universe to explain.

Their intention was to defeat him in a public debate, and thus end the challenge his theories posed to the longstanding uniformitarianism dogma.

An old-earth creationist book, written specifically to challenge young-earth geological theories, called the late twentieth-century revival of interest in flood geology " astonishing and perplexing ," especially " in the face of increasing geologic and astronomical evidence for the vast antiquity of the Earth and the universe.

Terrestrial gamma-ray flashes pose a challenge to current theories of lightning, especially with the discovery of the clear signatures of antimatter produced in lightning.

The Duke of Argyll had thrown down a challenge with his book The Reign of Law, which collected criticisms of the Origin and put forward theories of divine design and providential law in a way that struck Darwin as " very well written, very interesting, honest, & clever & very arrogant ".

The common conception of physical objects includes that they have extension in the physical world, although there do exist theories of quantum physics and cosmology which may challenge this.

Set to the challenge, researchers have drawn upon theories from related fields, like cognitive psychology and cognitive anthropology.

Cognitive semantics has sought to challenge traditional theories in two ways: first, by providing an account of the meaning of sentences by going beyond truth-conditional accounts ; and second, by attempting to go beyond accounts of word meaning that appeal to necessary and sufficient conditions.

An Experimental Enquiry Concerning the Source of the Heat which is Excited by Friction, ( 1798 ), Philosophical Transaction of the Royal Society p. 102 is a scientific paper by Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford that provided a substantial challenge to established theories of heat and began the 19th century revolution in thermodynamics.

As Boxall and Gallagher ( 1997 ) also observe ; "... accumulation of reserves in the early-1990's, beyond regulatory and future growth requirements, is difficult to reconcile with conventional theories of mutual behaviour ".

In an essay on conspiracy theories originating in the Middle East, Daniel Pipes notes that " ive assumptions distinguish the conspiracy theorist from more conventional patterns of thought: appearances deceive ; conspiracies drive history ; nothing is haphazard ; the enemy always gains ; power, fame, money, and sex account for all.

One important concept Holzkamp developed was " reinterpretation " of theories developed by conventional psychology.

There are speculative theories that claim inertia is produced by the combined mass of the universe ( e. g., Mach's principle ), which implies that the rest frame of the universe might be preferred by conventional measurements of natural law.

Before the Mariner 4 spacecraft arrived at Mars in July 1965 and dispelled some of the more exotic theories about the planet, the conventional image of Mars was shaped by the observations of the astronomers Giovanni Schiaparelli and Percival Lowell.

David Chalmers argues that quantum theories of consciousness suffer from the same weakness as more conventional theories.

DeMause and others have argued that psychohistory is a separate field of scholarly inquiry with its own particular methods, objectives and theories, which set it apart from conventional historical analysis and anthropology.

During the 1950s, theoretical condensed matter physicists arrived at a solid understanding of " conventional " superconductivity, through a pair of remarkable and important theories: the phenomenological Ginzburg-Landau theory ( 1950 ) and the microscopic BCS theory ( 1957 ).

" There are more recent criticisms of Judith Butler's theories which critique her writing for reinforcing the very conventional dichotomies of gender.

Pressing on his attacks, Fort shows what he sees as the ridiculousness of the conventional explanations and then interjects with his own theories.

Fort suggests that there is, for example, a Super-Sargasso Sea into which all lost things go, and justifies his theories by noting that they fit the data as well as the conventional explanations.

Review of the individual claims used as evidence for the AAH generally does not support the hypothesis overall, and most of these traits have an explanation within conventional theories of human evolution.

# The AAH uses negative arguments, pointing to the flaws and gaps in conventional theories ; though the criticisms of mainstream science and theories can be legitimate, the flaws in one theory do not automatically prove a proposed alternative is true.

This conventional model presents a number of difficult philosophical problems, and seems difficult to reconcile with currently accepted scientific theories such as the theory of relativity.

While conventional neoclassical economic theories of the 1960s and 1970s explained these as the result of free choices made by women and men who simply had different abilities or preferences, feminist economists pointed out the important roles played by stereotyping, sexism, patriarchal beliefs and institutions, sexual harassment, and discrimination.

However, theories do not generally make assumptions in the conventional sense ( statements accepted without evidence ).

renormalization process, which goes beyond the dilatation group of conventional renormalizable theories, came from condensed matter physics.

Even in Abelian gauge theories conventional approaches start off with a " Hilbert space " ( it's not a Hilbert space, but physicists call it a Hilbert space ) with an indefinite norm and the physical states and physical operators belong to a cohomology.

Bell abandoned conventional political talk in favor of topics such as gun control and conspiracy theories, leading to a significant bump in his overnight ratings.

Conflict theories, by contrast, present ostensibly normative positions, and often critique the ideological aspects inherent in conventional, traditional thought.

By taking quantum physics into account, the gravastar hypothesis attempts to resolve contradictions caused by conventional black hole theories.

The Lemuria theory disappeared completely from conventional scientific consideration after the theories of plate tectonics and continental drift were accepted by the larger scientific community.

This was contrary to popular perception of Yang-Mills theories at the time, that like gravitation and electrodynamics, their intensity should decrease with increasing distance between the interacting particles ; such conventional behaviour with distance was unable to explain the results of deep inelastic scattering, whereas't Hooft's calculations could.