Islamic philosophers such as Al-Kindi ( Alkindus ), Al-Farabi ( Alpharabius ), and Averroes ( Ibn Rushd ) reinterpreted Greek thought in the context of their religion.

* Abu ' l Walid Muhammad Ibn Rushd

Averroes ( Ibn Rushd ), in his treatise on Justice and Jihad and his commentary on Plato's Republic, writes that the human mind can know of the unlawfulness of killing and stealing and thus of the five maqasid or higher intents of the Islamic sharia or to protect religion, life, property, offspring, and reason.

However, in the Western thought, it is generally supposed that it was a specific area peculiar merely to the great philosophers of Islam: al-Kindi ( Alkindus ), al-Farabi ( Abunaser ), İbn Sina ( Avicenna ), Ibn Bajjah ( Avempace ), Ibn Rushd ( Averroes ), and Ibn Khaldun.

Secularism draws its intellectual roots from Greek and Roman philosophers such as Marcus Aurelius and Epicurus ; medieval Muslim polymaths such as Ibn Rushd ; Enlightenment thinkers such as Denis Diderot, Voltaire, Baruch Spinoza, John Locke, James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, and Thomas Paine ; and more recent freethinkers, agnostics, and atheists such as Robert Ingersoll and Bertrand Russell.

In particular, early secular ideas involving the separation of philosophy and religion can be traced back to Ibn Rushd ( Averroes ) and the Averroism school of philosophy.

Averroes ( Ibn Rushd ) introduced teleological arguments into his interpretations of Aristotle from an Islamic perspective in Moorish Spain in the latter half of the 12th Century.

* Averroes Ibn Rushd, Spanish Islamic polymath

(), better known just as Ibn Rushd (), and in European literature as Averroes (; April 14, 1126 – December 10, 1198 ), was an Andalusian Muslim polymath ; a master of Aristotelian philosophy, Islamic philosophy, Islamic theology, Maliki law and jurisprudence, logic, psychology, politics, Arabic music theory, and the sciences of medicine, astronomy, geography, mathematics, physics and celestial mechanics.

Ibn Rushd was a defender of Aristotelian philosophy against claims from the influential Islamic theologian Ghazali who attacked philosophy so it would not become an affront to the teachings of Islam.

Averroes is a Latinisation of the Arab name Ibn Rushd.

Ibn Rushd was the preeminent philosopher in the history of Al-Andalus.

Ibn Rushd was born in Córdoba to a family with a long and well-respected tradition of legal and public service.

Ibn Rushd began his career with the help of Ibn Tufail (" Aben Tofail " to the West ), the author of Hayy ibn Yaqdhan and philosophic vizier of Almohad king Abu Yaqub Yusuf who was an amateur of philosophy and science.

Ibn Rushd also authored three books on physics namely: Short Commentary on the Physics, Middle Commentary on the Physics and Long Commentary on the Physics.

Ibn Rushd defined and measured force as " the rate at which work is done in changing the kinetic condition of a material body " and correctly argued " that the effect and measure of force is change in the kinetic condition of a materially resistant mass ".

Ibn Rushd also developed the notion that bodies have a ( non-gravitational ) inherent resistance to motion into physics.

In Optics Ibn Rushd followed Alhazen's incorrect explanation that a Rainbow is due to reflection, not refraction.

Regarding his studies in astronomy, Ibn Rushd argued for a strictly concentric model of the universe, and explained sunspots and scientific reasoning regarding the occasional opaque colors of the moon.

et: Ibn Rushd

ms: Abul Waleed Muhammad Ibn Rushd

* For a new understanding of his early career, based on a newly discovered text, see also: Michot, Yahya, Ibn Sînâ: Lettre au vizir Abû Sa'd.

Invoking stories of the early life of the Prophet Muhammad, Ibn Yasin preached that conquest was a necessary addendum to Islamicization, that it was not enough to merely adhere to God's law, but necessary to also destroy opposition to it.

Tabari relates ( Suyuti also relates the same through Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi's report ) from Aisha her description of Abu Bakr:

The nature of " being " has also been debated and explored in Islamic philosophy, notably by Ibn Sina, Suhrawardi, and Mulla Sadra.

In the early 13th century, Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, and Ibn al-Baitar ( d. 1248 ) also wrote on botany.

Mather also took inspiration from Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, a philosophical novel by Abu Bakr Ibn Tufail ( whom he refers to as " Abubekar "), a 12th-century Islamic philosopher.

He may have also been inspired by the Latin or English translation of a book by the Andalusian-Arab Muslim polymath Ibn Tufail, who was known as " Abubacer " in Europe.

(, ), or simply Ibn Battuta (), also known as Shams ad-Din ( February 25, 1304 – 1368 or 1369 ), was a Berber Muslim Moroccan explorer, known for his extensive travels, accounts of which were published in the Rihla ( lit.

Ibn Battuta also mentions visiting Sana ' a, but whether he actually did so is doubtful.

The madh ' hab he observed was Imam Al-Shafi ‘ i, with similar customs as he had seen in coastal India especially among the Mappila Muslim, who were also the followers of Imam Al-Shafi ‘ i. Ibn Battuta then sailed to Malacca, Vietnam, the Philippines and finally Quanzhou in Fujian province, China.

Ibn Battuta arrived in the Chinese port city of Quanzhou, also known as Zaytun ).

Ibn Battuta also mentions Chinese cuisine and its usage of animals such as frogs.

He also described traveling further north, through the Grand Canal to Beijing, but as he neared the capital an internal power struggle among the Yuan Mongols erupted, causing Ibn Battuta and his Hui guides to return to the south coast.

Ibn Battuta also reported " the rampart of Yajuj and Majuj " was " sixty days ' travel " from the city of Zeitun ( Quanzhou ); Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb notes that Ibn Battuta believed that Great Wall of China was built by Dhul-Qarnayn to contain Gog and Magog as mentioned in the Quran.

However Ibn Battuta also mentioned an ingenious trick used by locals that allowed them to hunt hippopotamus for both their meat and hides.

During most of his journey in the Mali Empire, Ibn Battuta travelled with a retinue that included slaves, most of whom carried goods for trade but would also be traded as slaves.

The information is also second hand, and not derived from Ibn al-Shaykh's personal experience.

His knowledge of optics was connected to the handed-down long-standing tradition of the Kitab al-manazir ( The Optics ; De aspectibus ) of the Arab polymath Alhazen ( Ibn al-Haytham, d. c. 1041 ), which was mediated by Franciscan optical workshops of the 13th-century Perspectivae traditions of scholars such as Roger Bacon, John Peckham and Witelo ( similar influences are also traceable in the third commentary of Lorenzo Ghiberti, Commentario terzo ).

Arab interest in Maldives also was reflected in the residence there in the 1340s of the well-known North African traveler Ibn Battutah.

According to biographies preserved by Ibn al-Nadim and the Persian polymath al-Biruni, he allegedly received a revelation as a youth from a spirit, whom he would later call his Twin ( Aramaic Tauma ( תאומא ), from which is also derived the name of the apostle Thomas, the " twin "), his Syzygos ( Greek for " partner ", in the Cologne Mani-Codex ), his Double, his Protective Angel or ' Divine Self '.

Parabolic mirrors were also described by the physicist Ibn Sahl in the 10th century, and Ibn al-Haytham discussed concave and convex mirrors in both cylindrical and spherical geometries, carried out a number of experiments with mirrors, and solved the problem of finding the point on a convex mirror at which a ray coming from one point is reflected to another point.

Ancient Romans such as Pliny ( N. H. 5. 10 ) thought that the river near Timbuktu was part of the Nile River, a belief also held by Ibn Battuta, while early European explorers thought that it flowed west and joined the Senegal River.

Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya also posited that human reason could discern between ' great sins ' and good deeds.