The artisans and blacksmiths of Iberia in what is now southern Spain and southwestern France produced various iron daggers and swords of high quality from the 5th to the 3rd century BC, in ornamentation and patterns influenced by Greek, Punic ( Carthaginian ), and Phoenician culture.

He became a Carthaginian general in Iberia in 229 BC, a post he would maintain for some eight years until 221 BC.

The commercial interests of the Carthaginian oligarchy dictated the reinforcement and supply of Iberia rather than Hannibal throughout the campaign.

This Roman cavalry superiority was due to the betrayal of Masinissa, who had earlier assisted Carthage in Iberia, but changed sides in 206 BC with the promise of land and due to his personal conflicts with Syphax, a Carthaginian ally.

Around this time, Hasdrubal became Carthaginian commander in Iberia ( 229 BC ).

In the meantime in Iberia, which served as the main source of manpower for the Carthaginian army, a second Roman expedition under Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major took New Carthage by assault and ended Carthaginian rule over Iberia in the battle of Ilipa.

The Carthaginian army in Iberia, excluding the forces in Africa, totaled, according to Polybius, 90, 000 infantry, 12, 000 cavalry and 37 war elephants: it was thus one of the largest in the Hellenistic world and equal in numbers to any that the Romans had yet fielded.

The first Roman expedition to Iberia was unable to bring the Carthaginian troops in the hinterland of Massalia to a pitched battle, so it continued on its way to northern Iberia under Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus, a move which proved decisive for the outcome of the war.

According to Appian, in 213 BC Hasdrubal left Iberia and fought Syphax, though he may be confused with Hasdrubal Gisco, however, it did bind Carthaginian resources.

* Hasdrubal Gisco, Carthaginian general who has fought against Rome in Iberia and North Africa during the Second Punic War, customarily identified as the son of Gisco ( suicide )

** Hasdrubal Gisco, Carthaginian general who has fought against Rome in Iberia and North Africa during the Second Punic War, customarily identified as the son of Gisco ( suicide )

Mago and Hasdrubal Gisco guarded the Carthaginian possessions in Iberia without difficulty, despite the Scipios outnumbering their armies during the absence of Hasdrubal.

* Carthaginian Iberia

The Carthaginian armies had dispersed in the interior of Iberia in 209 BC, possibly to maintain control over the Iberian tribes, on which they were dependent on for soldiers and provisions.

Hamilcar is said to have assembled an army numbering 300, 000 soldiers from Iberia, Sardinia, Corsica, Italy, Gaul and Africa under the command of a body of Carthaginian officers, along with war chariots, 200 warships and 3, 000 transports for the venture.

Events leading to the Second Punic War began with a decision by Hannibal, new commander of troops in the Carthaginian province of Iberia, to consolidate power by provoking and defeating the surrounding Iberian tribesmen in battle.

Though it may not seem to be as original as Hannibal ’ s tactic at Cannae, Scipio ’ s pre-battle maneuver and his Reverse Cannae formation was still a culmination of his tactical ability, in which he forever broke the Carthaginian hold in Iberia, thus denying any further land invasion into Italy and a rich base for the Barca Dynasty both in silver and manpower.

After the Battle of Baecula and Hasdrubal Barca ’ s departure, further Carthaginian reinforcements were landed in Iberia in early 207 BC under Hanno, who soon joined Mago Barca.

After his final subjugation of Carthaginian Iberia and revenge upon the Iberian chieftains, whose betrayal had led to the death of his father and uncle, Scipio returned to Rome.

* 237 BC-The Carthaginian General Hamilcar Barca enters Iberia with his armies through Gadir.

The second period was characterized by the Spanish attempts to reimpose arbitrary rule during the period known as the Reconquista of 1814 – 1817 (" Reconquest ": the term echoes the Reconquista in which the Christian kingdoms retook Iberia from the Muslims ).

The conditions of the resulting Peace of Nisibis were heavy ; Armenia returned to Roman domination, with the fort of Ziatha as its border ; Caucasian Iberia would pay allegiance to Rome under a Roman appointee ; Nisibis, now under Roman rule, would become the sole conduit for trade between Persia and Rome ; and Rome would exercise control over the five satrapies between the Tigris and Armenia: Ingilene, Sophanene ( Sophene ), Arzanene ( Aghdznik ), Corduene ( Carduene ), and Zabdicene ( near modern Hakkâri, Turkey ).

They did not, until the period of Muslim rule, merge with the Spanish population, preferring to remain separate, and indeed the Visigothic language left only the faintest mark on the modern languages of Iberia.

By 1250, nearly all of Iberia was back under Christian rule with the exception of the small Muslim kingdom of Granada.

The Reconquista ended Almohad rule in Iberia and many Muslims and Jews migrated to Morocco.

For example, Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir, whose rule is considered to have marked the peak of power for Moorish Al-Andalus Iberia, married Abda, daughter of Sancho Garcés II of Navarra, who bore him a son, named Abd al-Rahman, and commonly known in pejorative sense as Sanchuelo ( Little Sancho, in Arabic: Shanjoul ).

The latter was said to be held in Toledo, Spain during Visigoth rule and was part of the loot taken by Tarik ibn Ziyad during the Umayyad Conquest of Iberia, according to Ibn Abd-el-Hakem's History of the Conquest of Spain.

The foreign policy of Denis, Afonso IV and Pedro I had been, as in rule, successful in its main object, the preservation of peace with the Christian kingdoms of Iberia ; in consequence, the Portuguese had advanced in prosperity and culture.

Their general, Tariq ibn-Ziyad, brought most of Iberia under Islamic rule in an eight-year campaign.

The Caliphate of Córdoba collapsed in 1031 and the Islamic territory in Iberia fell under the rule of the Almoravid dynasty.

Muslim rule continued in Iberia for another 500 years in several forms: Taifas, Berber kingdoms, and under the Kingdom of Granada until the 16th century AD.

Muslim rule in Iberia came to an end on January 2, 1492 with the conquest of the Nasrid kingdom of Granada.

His rule was characterised by the renewed supremacy of the western kingdoms of Christian Iberia over the eastern ( Navarre and Aragón ) after the reign of Alfonso the Battler.

The use of this plant rapidly expanded from Iberia throughout Africa and Asia and ultimately reached Central Europe through the Balkans which were under Ottoman rule, explaining the Slavic origin of the modern English term.

The Persian Governor, Adar-Vishnasp after restoring Persian rule in Iberia rushed to Armenia to quell the rebellion but was squarely defeated.

Clovis defeated the Goths in the Battle of Vouillé and the child-king Amalaric was carried for safety into Iberia while Gesalec was elected to replace him and rule from Narbonne.

At the beginning of the 9th century, eristavi Ashot I ( 813-830 ) of the new Bagrationi dynasty, from his base in southwestern Georgia, took advantage of the weakening of the Arab rule to establish himself as hereditary prince ( with the Byzantine title kouropalates ) of Iberia.

Halm took as his points of departure ancient reports that Germanic tribes in general were reported to have distributed conquered lands by having members draw lots, and that Iberia during the period of Visigothic rule was sometimes known to outsiders by a Latin name, Gothica Sors, whose meaning is ' Gothic lot '.

Some scholars give the start of the Golden Age as either 711 – 718 ( after the Muslim conquest of Iberia ) or 912 ( the rule of Abd-ar-Rahman III ) and the end of the Golden Age variously as 1031 ( when the Caliphate of Cordoba ended ), 1066 ( the date of the Granada massacre ), 1090 ( when the Almoravides invaded ), or the mid-12th century ( when the Almohades invaded ).

His rule marked the peak of power for Moorish Iberia.

Three chapters of the book take place in Muslim Iberia under Almanzor's rule, depicted from the point of view of Scanian Vikings who are captured by Moors while on a raid into Spain, serving as galley slaves.

A crisis within Visigoth rule facilitated the Muslim invasion ; shortly after 711 only a remnant of Iberia was left outside of Muslim control.