Its principal founder was Rabbi Zecharias Frankel, who had broken with the German Reform Judaism in 1845 over its rejection of the primacy of the Hebrew language in Jewish prayer and the rejection of the laws of kashrut.

Judaism holds instead that proper living is accomplished through good works and heartfelt prayer, as well as a strong faith in God.

Christians believe that Christianity is the fulfillment and successor of Judaism, retaining much of its doctrine and many of its practices including monotheism, the belief in a Messiah, and certain forms of worship like prayer and reading from religious texts.

Reform Judaism has developed an egalitarian prayer service in the vernacular ( along with Hebrew in many cases ) and emphasizes personal connection to Jewish tradition.

In Central Europe, followed by Great Britain and the United States, Reform Judaism and Liberal Judaism developed, relaxing legal obligations ( especially those that limited Jewish relations with non-Jews ), emulating Protestant decorum in prayer, and emphasizing the ethical values of Judaism's Prophetic tradition.

Jewish prayer (, tefilláh ; plural, tefillos or tefillót ; Yiddish ת ּ פ ֿ לה tfíle, plural ת ּ פ ֿ לות tfílles ; Yinglish: davening from Yiddish דא ַ וונען davnen ‘ to pray ’) are the prayer recitations that form part of the observance of Judaism.

The term " Kaddish " is often used to refer specifically to " The Mourners ' Kaddish ", said as part of the mourning rituals in Judaism in all prayer services as well as at funerals and memorials.

Reconstructionist Judaism also allowed women to perform other traditional male tasks, such as serving as witnesses, leading services, public Torah reading, and wearing ritual prayer garments like kippot and tallitot.

* Ha-Avodah Shebalev, The prayer book of The Israel Movement for Progressive Judaism, Ed.

* Seder ha-Tefillot: Forms of Prayer: Movement for Reform Judaism, London 2008, ISBN 0-947884-13-0 ; ISBN 978-0-947884-13-0 Official prayer book of the Reform movement in Britain

Traditionally in Judaism, the name is not pronounced but read as Adonai () (" Master "), during prayer, and referred to as HaShem (" the Name ") at all other times.

Rahel Berkovits, an Orthodox Talmud teacher at Jerusalem's Pardes Institute of Jewish Studies, states that as a result of such changes in Haredi and Modern Orthodox Judaism, " Orthodox women found and oversee prayer communities, argue cases in rabbinic courts, advise on halachic issues, and dominate in social work activities that are all very associated with the role a rabbi performs, even though these women do not have the official title of rabbi.

* Rahel Berkovits, an Orthodox Talmud teacher at Jerusalem's Pardes Institute of Jewish Studies, states that as a result of such changes in Haredi and Modern Orthodox Judaism, " Orthodox women have founded and overseen prayer communities, argue cases in rabbinic courts, advise on halachic issues, and dominate in social work activities that are all very associated with the role a rabbi performs, even though these women do not have the official title of rabbi.

Judaism has often emphasize strict monotheism and " exclusivity of the divinity " and prayer directly to God ; references to angels or other intermediaries are not typically seen in Jewish liturgy or in siddurs ( prayerbooks ).

The location is the holiest site in Judaism and is the place Jews turn towards during prayer.

Orthodox Judaism and orthodox Sunni Islam hold that for all practical purposes veneration should be considered the same as prayer ; Orthodox Judaism ( arguably with the exception of some Chasidic practices ), orthodox Sunni Islam, and most kinds of Protestantism forbid veneration of saints or angels, classifying these actions as akin to idolatry.

According to Judith Plaskow, who has focused on feminism in Reform Judaism, the main issues for early Jewish feminists in these movements were the exclusion from the all-male prayer group or minyan, the exemption from positive time-bound mitzvot, and women's inability to function as witnesses and to initiate divorce.

Observant Jews consider the Shema to be the most important part of the prayer service in Judaism, and its twice-daily recitation as a mitzvah ( religious commandment ).

Mainstream Ashkenazi Orthodox Judaism also adds the following prayer to the conclusion of every Amidah:

Prayer in Judaism is called " avodah shebalev ," " Service of the Heart ," and thus prayer is only worthwhile if one focuses one's emotion and intention, kavanah, to the words of the prayers.

The order of the books of the Torah or Pentateuch are universal through all denominations of Judaism and Christianity.

Judaism and most Protestant versions of the Bible exclude these books.

Orthodox Judaism holds that Halakha is the divine law as laid out in the Torah ( First five books of Moses ), rabbinical laws, rabbinical decrees and customs combined.

Rabbinic Judaism ( which derives from the Pharisees ) has always held that the books of the Torah ( called the written law ) have always been transmitted in parallel with an oral tradition.

The subject of homosexuality in Judaism dates back to the Torah, in the books of Bereshit and Vayiqra.

The Torah, the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, reflects the Judaism of ancient Israel and serves as the primary source for traditional Jewish laws and values.

Dennis Prager, author of popular books on Judaism and antisemitism, Nine Questions People ask about Judaism ( with Joseph Telushkin ) and Why the Jews?

Two notable books addressed the relations between contemporary Judaism and Christianity, Abba Hillel Silver's Where Judaism Differs and Leo Baeck's Judaism and Christianity, both motivated by an impulse to clarify Judaism's distinctiveness " in a world where the term Judeo-Christian had obscured critical differences between the two faiths.

He also has composed numerous textbooks and general trade books on Judaism.

While writing that the series fulfills the norms of mass-market fiction, as mentioned above, magazine writer Michelle Goldberg characterized the books as an attack on Judaism and liberal secularism, and suggested that the near-future " end times " in which the books are set seem to reflect the actual worldview of millions of Americans, including many prominent conservative leaders.

From 1934 until 1970 Kaplan wrote a series of books in which he expressed his Reconstructionist ideology, which centred on the " concept of Judaism as a civilization ".

The Hebrew Canon approved by Rabbinic Judaism included only certain Hebrew / Aramaic books but not all.

Scholars usually refer to the first five books of the Hebrew Bible as the Pentateuch, a term first used in the Hellenistic Judaism of Alexandria, meaning five books, or as the Law, or Law of Moses.

The five books of the Torah are known in Judaism by their incipits, the initial words of the first verse of each book.

Samaritans, followers of an Abrahamic religion closely related to Judaism that recognizes only the first five ( or six ) books of the Bible as canonical, celebrate only one day of Shemini Atzeret.

Rabbinic Judaism holds that the books of the Tanakh were transmitted in parallel with an oral tradition, as relayed by God to Moses and from him handed on to the scholarly and other religious leaders of each generation.

Category: History books about Judaism

The library also contains 4, 500 volumes of Claude Montefiore's library on Theology and Judaism, the Ford Parliamentary Papers, Frank Perkins ' collection of books on agriculture, Sir Samual Gurney-Dixons's Dante collection and the James Parkes Library of Jewish / non-Jewish relations.

Finkelstein authored a number of books, including Tradition in the Making, Beliefs and Practices of Judaism, Pre-Maccabean Documents in the Passover Haggadah, Abot of Rabbi Nathan, ( a three volume series on The Pharisees ), and Akiba: Scholar, Saint and Martyr.

How fully in correspondence with such an environment the work would be, as apologia for the Church against the Synagogue's attempts to influence Roman policy to its harm, must be clear to all familiar with the strength of Judaism in Asia ( cf.

Its combination of modern innovation ( such as mixed gender seating ) and traditional practice particularly appealed to first and second-generation Eastern European Jewish immigrants, who found Orthodoxy too restrictive, but Reform Judaism foreign.

Conservative Jews believe that movements to its left, such as Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism, have erred by rejecting the traditional authority of Jewish law and tradition.

Conservative Judaism has come under criticism from a variety of sources such as:

* Conservative Traditionalists who criticize the Halakhic process when dealing with issues such as women in Judaism as well as homosexuality.

Christians explain that such selectivity is based on rulings made by early Jewish Christians in the Book of Acts, at the Council of Jerusalem, that, while believing gentiles did not need to fully convert to Judaism, they should follow some aspects of Torah like avoiding idolatry and fornication and blood, including, according to some interpretations, homosexuality.

Some Christians agree that Jews who accept Jesus should still observe all of Torah, see for example Dual-covenant theology, based on warnings by Jesus to Jews not to use him as an excuse to disregard it, and they support efforts of those such as Messianic Jews ( Messianic Judaism is considered by most Christians and Jews to be a form of Christianity ) to do that, but some Protestant forms of Christianity oppose all observance to the Mosaic law, even by Jews, which Luther criticised as Antinomianism, see Antinomianism # Antinomian Controversies in Lutheranism and Luther # Anti-Antinomianism for details.

Because Judaism focuses on this life, many questions to do with survival and conflict ( such as the classic moral dilemma of two people in a desert with only enough water for one to survive ) were analysed in great depth by the rabbis within the Talmud, in the attempt to understand the principles a godly person should draw upon in such a circumstance.

It was said in the Talmud about the death penalty in Judaism, that if a court killed more than one person in seventy years, it was a barbarous ( or " bloody ") court and should be condemned as such.

In this, Islam resembles socially conservative interpretations of other Abrahamic religions such as Judaism and Christianity.

A monotheistic religion originating in the Hebrew Bible ( also known as the Tanakh ) and explored in later texts such as the Talmud, Judaism is considered by religious Jews to be the expression of the covenantal relationship God established with the Children of Israel.

In modern times, liberal movements such as Humanistic Judaism may be nontheistic.

Consequently, in his view, Judaism does not fit easily into conventional Western categories, such as religion, ethnicity, or culture.

In contrast to this point of view, practices such as Humanistic Judaism reject the religious aspects of Judaism, while retaining certain cultural traditions.

* Reconstructionist Judaism, like Reform Judaism, does not hold that Jewish law, as such, requires observance, but unlike Reform, Reconstructionist thought emphasizes the role of the community in deciding what observances to follow.

Karaite Judaism defines itself as the remnants of the non-Rabbinic Jewish sects of the Second Temple period, such as the Sadducees.

This is indicative of the general population trends among the Jewish community in the Diaspora, but a focus on total population obscures growth trends in some denominations and communities, such as Haredi Judaism.

Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism hold that halakha ( Jewish law ) is no longer binding, and rabbis in those movements follow their individual consciences on such matters ; some uphold the traditional prohibitions and some permit weddings on these days.

Some secularists reject the use of " Judeo-Christian " as a code-word for a particular kind of Christian America, with scant regard to modern Jewish, Catholic, or Christian traditions, including the liberal strains of different faiths, such as Reform Judaism and liberal Protestant Christianity.

* Abrahamism – an umbrella term used to refer to the religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as well as sometimes indicating smaller, related religions such as Bahá ' í Faith and Samaritans

In contrast, Neusner views each rabbinic document as an individual piece of evidence that can only shed light on the more local Judaisms of such specific document's place of origin and the specific Judaism of the author.