The ABC was built by Dr. Atanasoff and graduate student Clifford Berry in the basement of the physics building at Iowa State College during 1939 – 42.

But in 1939, Robert Oppenheimer and others predicted that neutron stars above approximately three solar masses ( the Tolman – Oppenheimer – Volkoff limit ) would collapse into black holes for the reasons presented by Chandrasekhar, and concluded that no law of physics was likely to intervene and stop at least some stars from collapsing to black holes.

In the 1950s – 1970s, Caltech was the home of Murray Gell-Mann and Richard Feynman, whose work was central to the establishment of the Standard Model of particle physics.

Once the electronic and nuclear variables are separated ( within the Born – Oppenheimer representation ), in the time-dependent approach, the wave packet corresponding to the nuclear degrees of freedom is propagated via the time evolution operator ( physics ) associated to the time-dependent Schrödinger equation ( for the full molecular Hamiltonian ).

* Theoretical chemistry – study of chemistry via fundamental theoretical reasoning ( usually within mathematics or physics ).

Enrico Fermi (; 29 September 1901 – 28 November 1954 ) was an Italian physicist, naturalized American later in his life, particularly known for his work on the development of the first nuclear reactor, Chicago Pile-1, and for his contributions to the development of quantum theory, nuclear and particle physics, and statistical mechanics.

In particle physics, a fermion ( a name coined by Paul Dirac from the surname of Enrico Fermi ) is any particle characterized by Fermi – Dirac statistics and following the Pauli exclusion principle ; fermions include all quarks and leptons, as well as any composite particle made of an odd number of these, such as all baryons and many atoms and nuclei.

Firmin Abauzit ( 1679 – 1767 ) was a French scholar who worked on physics, theology and philosophy, and served as librarian in Geneva ( Switzerland ) during his final 40 years.

Fourier analysis has many scientific applications – in physics, partial differential equations, number theory, combinatorics, signal processing, imaging, probability theory, statistics, option pricing, cryptography, numerical analysis, acoustics, oceanography, sonar, optics, diffraction, geometry, protein structure analysis and other areas.

The best-known exact solutions, and also those most interesting from a physics point of view, are the Schwarzschild solution, the Reissner – Nordström solution and the Kerr metric, each corresponding to a certain type of black hole in an otherwise empty universe, and the Friedmann – Lemaître – Robertson – Walker and de Sitter universes, each describing an expanding cosmos.

* Gell-Mann – Okubo mass formula in particle physics

He became professor of physics at Bologna in 1798, in succession to his teacher Sebastiano Canterzani ( 1734 – 1819 ).

By the 1830s mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology had emerged with world class science, led by Alexander von Humboldt ( 1769 – 1859 ) in natural science and Carl Friedrich Gauss ( 1777 – 1855 ) in mathematics.

Ibn Sina ( 980 – 1037 ), known by the Latin name Avicenna, was a medical researcher from Bukhara, Uzbekistan responsible for important contributions to the disciplines of physics, optics, philosophy and medicine.

Schmitt is an adjunct professor of engineering physics at the University of Wisconsin – Madison ,< ref >

While at General Electric, from 1909 – 1950, Langmuir advanced several basic fields of physics and chemistry, invented the gas-filled incandescent lamp, the hydrogen welding technique, and was awarded the 1932 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work in surface chemistry.

In physics, Kaluza – Klein theory ( KK theory ) is a model that seeks to unify the two fundamental forces of gravitation and electromagnetism.

Karl Ferdinand Braun ( 6 June 1850 – 20 April 1918 ) was a German inventor, physicist and Nobel laureate in physics.

* Fundamentals of Flight, Richard S. Shevell, Prentice-Hall International Editions, ISBN 0-13-332917-8 – This book is primarily intended as a text for a one semester undergraduate course in mechanical or aeronautical engineering, although its sections on theory of flight are understandable with a passing knowledge of calculus and physics.

* List of publications in physics – Materials physics

Following National Service in the Royal Army Educational Corps from 1948 to 1949, he read Mathematics at Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating in 1952, then earned his PhD in physics in 1955, supervised by Abdus Salam in the group led by Paul Dirac.

; Abdus Salam ( professor, Pakistan ): for outstanding achievements in physics.

Supersymmetry first arose in 1971 in the context of an early version of string theory by Pierre Ramond, John H. Schwarz and André Neveu, but the mathematical structure of supersymmetry has subsequently been applied successfully to other areas of physics ; firstly by Wess, Zumino, and Abdus Salam and their fellow researchers to particle physics, and later to a variety of fields, ranging from quantum mechanics to statistical physics.

In particle physics, the Higgs mechanism ( also called the Brout – Englert – Higgs mechanism, Englert – Brout – Higgs – Guralnik – Hagen – Kibble mechanism ,, Anderson – Higgs mechanism, Higgs-Kibble mechanism by Abdus Salam and ABEGHHK ' tH mechanism Anderson, Brout, Englert, Guralnik, Hagen, Higgs, Kibble and't Hooft by Peter Higgs ) is a kind of mass generation mechanism, a process that gives mass to elementary particles.

The Higgs mechanism was incorporated into modern particle physics by Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam, and is an essential part of the standard model.

His formulation, carried out in collaboration with Nobel Laureate Abdus Salam of Pakistan, of the original gauge theory of quark – lepton unification, and their resulting insight that violations of baryon and lepton numbers, especially those that would manifest in proton decay, are likely consequences of such a unification, provide cornerstones of modern particle physics today.

* Nobel Laureate Dr Abdus Salam ( 1926 – 1996 ), a world renowned scientist and first and only Muslim or Pakistani man to win the Nobel Prize in Physics ( 1979 ) for his gauge unification of weak and electromagnetic interactions, which forms the basis of the Standard Model in particle physics.

Between 1958 and 1960 Ne ' eman was IDF Attaché in Great Britain, where he also studied for a PhD in physics under the supervision of 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics winner Abdus Salam at Imperial College London.

He is also one of the pioneers of the Standard Model of gauge particle interactions: His contributions were published in a series of papers co-authored with A. Salam An insightful and well documented discussion on Ward's contribution to the physics of the Standard Model is given in the recent book Cosmic Anger.

The standard model of particle physics was developed that so far has successfully explained the properties of the nucleus in terms of these sub-atomic particles and the forces that govern their interactions.

In our current understanding of physics, the Bohr model is called a semi-classical model because of its quantization of angular momentum, not primarily because of its relationship with electron wavelength, which appeared in hindsight a dozen years after the Bohr model was proposed.

states in the Bohr model match those of current physics.

In physics, colloids are an interesting model system for atoms.

The physical model behind cosmic inflation is extremely simple, however it has not yet been confirmed by particle physics, and there are difficult problems reconciling inflation and quantum field theory.

One of the goals of these efforts is to measure the basic parameters of the Lambda-CDM model with increasing accuracy, as well as to test the predictions of the Big Bang model and look for new physics.

In modern theoretical physics, the Casimir effect plays an important role in the chiral bag model of the nucleon ; and in applied physics, it is significant in some aspects of emerging microtechnologies and nanotechnologies.

Although several versions of many-worlds have been proposed since Hugh Everett's original work, they all contain one key idea: the equations of physics that model the time evolution of systems without embedded observers are sufficient for modelling systems which do contain observers ; in particular there is no observation-triggered wave function collapse which the Copenhagen interpretation proposes.

However, the complexity of erosion processes and the number of areas that must be studied to understand and model them ( e. g. climatology, hydrology, geology, chemistry, physics, etc.

In condensed matter physics, Dyson also did studies in the phase transition of the Ising model in 1 dimension and spin waves.

The study of ferromagnetic phase transitions, especially via the simplified Ising spin model, had an important impact on the development of statistical physics.

A Grand Unified Theory, ( GUT ), is a model in particle physics in which at high energy, the three gauge interactions of the Standard Model which define the electromagnetic, weak, and strong interactions, are merged into one single interaction characterized by one larger gauge symmetry and thus one unified coupling constant.

The harmonic oscillator model is very important in physics, because any mass subject to a force in stable equilibrium acts as a harmonic oscillator for small vibrations.

Since its inception it has broadened to find applications in many other areas, including statistical inference, natural language processing, cryptography, neurobiology, the evolution and function of molecular codes, model selection in ecology, thermal physics, quantum computing, plagiarism detection and other forms of data analysis.

Based upon the laws of physics, a model is set up in which one parameter is the rate of rotation of the Universe.

If the laws of physics agree more accurately with observations in a model with rotation than without it, we are inclined to select the best-fit value for rotation, subject to all other pertinent experimental observations.

The model may be based on basic physics of the interactions of the ions and electrons with the neutral atmosphere and sunlight, or it may be a statistical description based on a large number of observations or a combination of physics and observations.

* Lattice model ( physics ), a model defined not on a continuum, but on a lattice