More than 25 human samples have been found positive for RVF by PCR or ELISA.

There are a number of diagnostic tests for including: HCV antibody enzyme immunoassay or ELISA, recombinant immunoblot assay, and quantitative HCV RNA polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ).

It can also be diagnosed by detection of antigens in blood or urine samples by ELISA or PCR.

This test is effective 10 days after potential infection, and anytime thereafter ( HIV-1 DNA, by PCR ) as compared to the alternative HIV test ( HIV ELISA ) which requires a six-month waiting period to be effective.

Diagnosis of leptospirosis is confirmed with tests such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay ( ELISA ) and polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ).

Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay ( ELISA ), PCR, and sequence technology tests have been developed.

For example, donors are tested for HIV by ELISA, which shows if they have been exposed to the disease, as well as by nucleic acid methods ( PCR or similar ) to rule out recent infections that the ELISA test might miss.

However diagnosis should be confirmed using laboratory tests such as bacterial culture, PCR, agar gel precipitation, ELISA and serum agglutination.

Virus isolation, increased antibody titres, immunoperoxidase staining, ELISA, PCR or indirect immunofluorescence can be used to confirm the presence of the virus.

Methods used in laboratory diagnosis include culturing of nasopharyngeal swabs on Bordet-Gengou medium, polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ), direct immunofluorescence ( DFA ), and serological methods.

Other methods include culture and PCR, but these are not routinely available and the results do not always correlate with serological testing, and are affected by prior antibiotic treatment.

Diagnostic and serologic laboratory testing utilizing PCR testing and viral culture of CSF to identify the specific pathogen causing the symptoms, is the only currently available means of differentiating between causes of encephalitis and meningitis.

The development of DNA amplification by the Polymerase Chain Reaction ( PCR ) opened up new approaches to forensic DNA testing, allowing automation, greatly increased sensitivity and a move to alternative marker systems.

One study testing genital skin for subclinical HPV using PCR found a prevalence of 10 %.

The current techniques for paternal testing are using polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ) and restriction fragment length polymorphism.

With PCR being developed between 1975 and 1980 and the first restriction enzyme isolated in 1970, highly accurate parental testing was not a possibility before 1970.

Most often, PCR testing is used in conjunction with blood film examination and possibly serologic testing.

The accuracy of serologic testing has been verified by isolation and culture of HIV and by detection of HIV RNA by PCR, which are widely accepted " gold standards " in microbiology.

Antigen testing of urine and serum, and PCR amplification of specific nucleotide sequences have been tried, with high sensitivity and specificity.

This can be done by means of PCR testing for RSV nucleic acids in peripheral blood samples if all other infectious processes have been ruled out or if it is highly suspicious for RSV such as a recent exposure to a known source of RSV infection.

It entails sampling of the chorionic villus ( placental tissue ) and testing it for chromosomal abnormalities, usually with FISH or PCR.

Methods currently being developed to detect the presence of campylobacter organisms include antigen testing via an EIA or PCR.

If RT-PCR tests result in cDNA showing the absence of an entire exon or exons, then multiplex genomic PCR testing is performed.

Multiplex genomic PCR testing amplifies the nine exons of the HPRT1 gene as eight PCR products.

However, in an endemically infected colony, more practical methods include MAP ( mouse antibody production ) and PCR testing.

In addition, testing found that the reactors have a positive power co-efficient of reactivity ( PCR ), which was in disagreement with the prediction of the modelling, and was a significant barrier to commissioning.

By the early 1990s, the PCR technique with Taq polymerase was being used in many areas, including basic molecular biology research, clinical testing, and forensics.

* PCR can be used to determine how many copies of a gene are present in a cell.

Nucleic acid amplification tests ( NAAT ), such as polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ), transcription mediated amplification ( TMA ), and the DNA strand displacement amplification ( SDA ) now are the mainstays.

The selectivity of PCR results from the use of primers that are complementary to the DNA region targeted for amplification under specific thermal cycling conditions.

In PCR, primers are used to determine the DNA fragment to be amplified by the PCR process.

PCR primers are then synthesized as a mixture of primers corresponding to all permutations.

The PCR products are then digested using RFLP enzymes and the resulting patterns visualized using a DNA sequencer.

Some of these enzymes are used in molecular biology ( for example, heat-stable DNA polymerases for PCR ), and in washing agents.

With the abundance of PCR technology, primers that flank microsatellite loci are simple and quick to use, but the development of correctly functioning primers is often a tedious and costly process. A number of DNA samples from specimens of Littorina plena amplified using polymerase chain reaction with primers targeting a variable simple sequence repeat ( SSR, a. k. a. microsatellite ) locus.

Once the potentially useful microsatellites are determined ( removing non-useful ones such as those with random inserts within the repeat region ), the flanking sequences can be used to design oligonucleotide primers which will amplify the specific microsatellite repeat in a PCR reaction.

If positive clones can be obtained from this procedure, the DNA is sequenced and PCR primers are chosen from sequences flanking such regions to determine a specific locus.

Microsatellite loci are widely distributed throughout the genome and can be isolated from semi-degraded DNA of older specimens, as all that is needed is a suitable substrate for amplification through PCR.

The complementary sequences to two neighboring microsatellites are used as PCR primers ; sequence diversity is lower than in SSR-PCR, but still higher than in actual gene sequences.

PCR failure may result when particular loci fail to amplify, whereas others amplify more efficiently and may appear homozygous on a gel assay, when they are in reality heterozygous in the genome.

Shorter repeat sequences tend to suffer from artifacts such as PCR stutter and preferential amplification, as well as the fact that several genetic diseases are associated with tri-nucleotide repeats such as Huntington's disease.

These STR loci ( locations on a chromosome ) are targeted with sequence-specific primers and amplified using PCR.

Polyphenols are common in many plant tissues and can deactivate proteins if not removed and therefore inhibit many downstream reactions like PCR.

Although this is the main way in which PE is diagnosed, there are current studies that have shown that PCR may be used to identify E. oligarthus and E. vogeli in patients ’ tissues.

The only drawback of using PCR to diagnose polycystic echinococcosis is that there aren ’ t many genetic sequences that can be used for PCR that are specific only E. oligarthus or E. vogeli.

Recent research verified by the application of molecular techniques ( PCR ) that dogs are a reservoir for T. trichiura, as well as T. vulpis.

Other methods, such as electron microscopy and PCR, are used in research laboratories.

Molecular biology research uses numerous proteins and enzymes many of which are from expression systems ; particularly DNA polymerase for PCR, reverse transcriptase for RNA analysis and restriction endonucleases for cloning.

Simultaneously, other diagnostic tests ( antibody detection, fatty-acid profiling, and genetic procedures using PCR ) are conducted to identify the particular canker strain.