By the time Gorbachev ushered in the process that would lead to the dismantling of the Soviet administrative command economy through his programs of glasnost ( political openness ), uskoreniye ( speed-up of economic development ) and perestroika ( political and economic restructuring ) announced in 1986, the Soviet economy suffered from both hidden inflation and pervasive supply shortages aggravated by an increasingly open black market that undermined the official economy.

To restructure the Soviet administrative command system and implement a transition to a market-based economy, Yeltsin's shock program was employed within days of the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

Thus B3-34 defined a new command set, which later was used in a series of later programmable Soviet calculators.

The Elektronika MK-52 calculator ( using the extended B3-34 command set, and featuring internal EEPROM memory for storing programs and external interface for EEPROM cards and other periphery ) was used in Soviet spacecraft program ( for Soyuz TM-7 flight ) as a backup of the board computer.

This is heavily contrasted to the command economy model of the former Soviet Union.

While many socialist currents advocated economic planning as an eventual substitute for the market for factors of production, some define economic planning as being based on worker-self management, with production being carried out to directly satisfy human needs, and contrast this with the concept of a command economy of the Soviet Union, which they characterize as being based on a top-down bureaucratic administration of the economy in a similar fashion to a capitalist firm.

The Command economy is distinguished from economic planning, and different theories for classifying the socioeconomic system of the Soviet Union exist ; most notably a command economy is associated with Bureaucratic collectivism, State capitalism or State socialism.

The approach to the building of socialism, however, varied over different periods in Soviet history, from the mixed economy and diverse society and culture of the 1920s to the command economy and repressions of the Joseph Stalin era to the " era of stagnation " in the 1980s.

He simultaneously administered vast sections of the Soviet state and served as de facto Marshal of the Soviet Union in command of the NKVD field units responsible for anti-partisan operations on the Eastern Front during World War II, as well as for acting as barrier troops and the apprehension of thousands of " turncoats, deserters, cowards and suspected malingerers ".

Although he had never held a traditional military command, Beria made a significant contribution to the victory of the Soviet Union in World War II through his organization of wartime production and his use of partisans.

Bevin and Bidault also insisted that any aid be accompanied by the creation of a unified European economy, something incompatible with the strict Soviet command economy.

Following World War II, the Soviet Union offered military assistance to the Afghan government where the United States refused, and by the 1960s, Soviet assistance started to improve the structure, armament, training, and command and control arrangements for the military.

Despite the estimations held by Hitler and others in the German high command, the Soviet Union was by no means weak.

The goal of the perestroika, however, was not to end the command economy but rather to make socialism work more efficiently to better meet the needs of Soviet consumers.

Soviet infantrymen under the command of Major Anatole Vavilov stormed the installations at Peenemünde and found then " 75 percent wreckage ".

Romania entered World War II under the command of the German Wehrmacht in June 1941, declaring war to the Soviet Union in order to recover Bessarabia and northern Bukovina.

The economic systems of the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc are further classified as command economies, which are defined as systems where economic coordination is undertaken by commands, directives and production targets.

Although the command economy approach of the communist states meant that most types of property could not be owned, the Soviet Union always had a civil code, courts that interpreted this civil code, and a civil law approach to legal reasoning ( thus, both legal process and legal reasoning were largely analogous to the French or German civil code system ).

When LeMay assumed command of SAC, his vision was to create a force of nuclear-armed long-range bombers with the capability to devastate the Soviet Union within a few days of the advent of war.

Despite SAC's establishment of " hardened " underground command and control facilities at its headquarters at Offutt AFB, LeMay and his planners knew that a direct nuclear strike by Soviet forces employing hydrogen weapons would likely destroy the facility.

Like the B-52, the airborne command post would also be hardened against electromagnetic pulse ( EMP ) radiation, making it capable of operating during a nuclear exchange with the Soviet Union.

Set within the Soviet Union, these two centers were used to field test aircraft and armoured vehicles up to the battalion level, as well as housing aerial and armoured warfare schools through which officers were rotated.

( Due to a mistranslation, Soviet reports said Fermi's work was performed in a converted " pumpkin field " instead of a " squash court ", a mis-translation based on confusion between dual meanings of " squash ", the food-crop plant and the game.

* The Soviet flag, with its golden symbols of the hammer and sickle on a red field, was an inspiration to flags of other communist states, such as East Germany, People's Republic of China, Vietnam, Angola, Afghanistan and Mozambique.

American and Soviet jumpers held the playing field for the next four decades, and they pioneered the evolution of the straddle technique.

When the first scientific satellites were launched in the first half of 1958 — Explorers 1 and 3 by the US, Sputnik 3 by the Soviet Union — they observed an intense ( and unexpected ) radiation belt around Earth, held by its magnetic field.

* 1917 – Nikolai Vasilievich Ogarkov, Soviet field marshal ( d. 1994 )

Until the late years of the Soviet Union, political science as a field was subjected to tight control of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.

The unprepared Soviet forces suffered much damage in the field because of mediocre officers, partial mobilization, an incomplete reorganization and mainly because they were arranged to attack Central Europe, and not to defend Soviet territory.

To avoid the professional hazard of politicized history, some historians chose pre-modern, mediæval history or classical history, where ideological demands were relatively relaxed and conversation with other historians in the field could be fostered ; nevertheless, despite the potential danger of proscribed ideology corrupting historians ’ work, not all of Soviet historiography was corrupt.

Soviet astronomer Iosif Shklovskii wrote the pioneering book in the field Universe, Life, Intelligence ( 1962 ), which was expanded upon by American astronomer Carl Sagan as the best-selling Intelligent Life in the Universe ( 1966 ).

* Valentin Voloshinov ( 1895 – 1936 ) was a Soviet / Russian linguist, whose work has been influential in the field of literary theory and Marxist theory of ideology.

Besides the United States and Soviet Union, France and China are understood to have tested neutron or enhanced radiation bombs in the past, with France apparently leading the field with an early test of the technology in 1967 and an " actual " neutron bomb in 1980.

All five of Hungary's field armies ultimately participated in the war against the Soviet Union ; a significant contribution was made by the Hungarian Second Army.

In the 41st Soviet Championship at Moscow, Spassky scored 11½ / 17 to win by a full point in a field which included all the top Soviet grandmasters of the time.

Unknown to the US, the Soviet field commanders in Cuba had been given authority to launch — the only time such authority was delegated by higher command.

After that, an awareness of the new field of socionics slowly began to spread to other cities around the Soviet Union.

The Lada Niva or VAZ-2121 (, Niva ( нива ) is the Russian word for " crop field ") is an off-road vehicle built by Soviet / Russian automaker AvtoVAZ.

In 1952, the Chinese government regrouped the country's higher education institutions in an attempt to build a Soviet style system, with individual institutions tending to specialise in a certain field of study.

SMERSH, the Soviet counterintelligence agency, plans to commit a grand act of terrorism in the intelligence field.

The Israelis successfully used a number of 175 mm M107 guns in the counter-battery role against its Soviet counterpart, the 130 mm towed field gun M1954 ( M-46 ), but the introduction of long range rockets fired from Lebanon outranged them.