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The Soviet Intercosmos program included cosmonauts selected from Warsaw Pact members ( from Czechoslovakia, Poland, East Germany, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania ) and later from allies of the USSR ( Cuba, Mongolia, Vietnam ) and non-aligned countries ( India, Syria, Afghanistan ).
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Soviet and Intercosmos
As a result, the vast majority of the station's crew were Soviet or Russian ; however, through international collaborations, including the Intercosmos, Euromir and Shuttle-Mir programmes, the station was made accessible to astronauts from North America, several European nations and Japan.
Following the Apollo – Soyuz Test Project, there were even talks between NASA and Intercosmos in the 1970s about a " Shuttle-Salyut " program to fly Space Shuttle missions to a Salyut space station, with later talks in the 1980s even considering flights of the future Soviet shuttles from the Buran programme to a future US space station.
While the Shuttle-Salyut program never materialized during the existence of the Soviet Intercosmos program, after the Dissolution of the Soviet Union the Shuttle – Mir Program would follow in these footsteps and pave the way to the International Space Station.
Wing Commander Rakesh Sharma, AC, Hero of the Soviet Union, ( born January 13, 1949 ) is a former Indian Air Force test pilot who flew aboard Soyuz T-11 as part of the Intercosmos program.
He was a squadron leader with the Indian Air Force, when he flew into space in 1984 as part of a joint programme between the Indian Space Research Organisation ( ISRO ) and the Soviet Intercosmos space program.
Sharma, then a Squadron Leader and pilot with the Indian Air Force embarked on a historic mission in 1984 as part of a joint space program between the Indian Space Research Organisation and the Soviet Intercosmos space program, and spent eight days in space aboard the Salyut 7 space station.
The Soyuz 28 mission was the first Intercosmos flight, whereby military pilots from Soviet bloc nations were flown on flights of about eight days to a Soviet space station.
The Center has also trained candidates from other countries of ( or aligned to ) the former Soviet bloc under the Intercosmos program, which got an initial boost from the joint Soviet-American Apollo-Soyuz flight in 1975.
Tamayo was selected as part of the Soviet Union's seventh Intercosmos program on March 1, 1978.
As soon as he entered the Soviet International Space Programme Intercosmos in 1978, he had to change his family name to Ivanov, because his original surname Kakalov occasionally had negative connotations in Russian.
Soyuz 33 was launched 10 April with the fourth international crew in the Soviet Intercosmos program.
After a two-day delay caused by a windstorm at the launch site, Soyuz 33 was launched 10 April 1979 with the fourth international crew in the Soviet Intercosmos program.
The launch was a part of the Soviet Intercosmos program whereby guest cosmonauts from allied nations would visit the space station, typically for about a week.
The flight was the fifth Intercosmos flight whereby guest cosmonauts from Soviet allied nations would visit the space station, typically for about a week.
Last Soyuz Ferry flight ; ended the first phase of the Intercosmos program, which concentrated on placing citizens of Soviet bloc states into space.
It also ended the first phase of the Intercosmos program by carrying Romanian cosmonaut Dumitru Prunariu and Soviet cosmonaut Leonid Popov to the station.
Aleksandrov was selected as a Research Cosmonaut on March 1, 1978 as part of the Soviet Union's Intercosmos program.
The category includes astronauts who have flown missions for the European Space Agency, as well as European nationals who have flown missions with the U. S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration or in the Russian / Soviet Intercosmos missions.
This was followed by the talks between NASA and Intercosmos in the 1970s about a " Shuttle-Salyut " program to fly Space Shuttle missions to a Salyut space station, with later talks in the 1980s even considering flights of the future Soviet shuttles from the Buran programme to a future US space station – this " Shuttle-Salyut " program never materialized however during the existence of the Soviet Intercosmos program.
Soviet and program
As things turned out, however, we have not profited greatly from the lesson: instead of persistently following a national program of our own we have often been satisfied to be against whatever Soviet policy seemed to be at the moment.
The effect of Chou En-lai's clash with Khrushchev, together with the everlasting attacks on Molotov & Co., has shifted the whole attention of the world, including that of the Soviet people, from the `` epoch-making '' twenty-year program to the present Soviet-Chinese conflict.
* 1960 – Sputnik program: Korabl-Sputnik 2 – the Soviet Union launches the satellite with the dogs Belka and Strelka, 40 mice, 2 rats and a variety of plants.
* 1967 – Soviet space program: Soyuz 1 ( Russian: Союз 1, Union 1 ) is a manned spaceflight, Launched into orbit carrying cosmonaut Colonel Vladimir Komarov.
Category: Nuclear weapons program of the Soviet Union
Major public proof of the Soviet program, called Biopreparat, came when Dr. Kanatjan Alibekov, its first deputy director, defected to the U. S. in 1992.
In a June 5, 1947 speech, comporting with the Truman Doctrine, Marshall announced a comprehensive program of American assistance to all European countries wanting to participate, including the Soviet Union and those of Eastern Europe, called the Marshall Plan.
When the Soviet Union was the only member state which refused to sign, the U. S. embarked on a massive nuclear weapons testing, development, and deployment program.
For example, NASA's workhorse space shuttle used cryogenic hydrogen / oxygen propellant as its primary means of getting into orbit, and all of the rockets built for the Soviet space program by Sergei Korolev used liquid oxygen as their oxidiser.
The Afghan war and the Soviet response to Mr. Reagan's Star Wars program caused only a relatively small rise in defense costs.
Additionally, the costs of superpower status — the military, space program, subsidies to client states — were out of proportion to the Soviet economy.
To restructure the Soviet administrative command system and implement a transition to a market-based economy, Yeltsin's shock program was employed within days of the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
The Elektronika MK-52 calculator ( using the extended B3-34 command set, and featuring internal EEPROM memory for storing programs and external interface for EEPROM cards and other periphery ) was used in Soviet spacecraft program ( for Soyuz TM-7 flight ) as a backup of the board computer.
On the whole, Eisenhower's support of the embryonic space program was lukewarm until the Soviet launch of Sputnik.
The Explorer program was later reestablished to catch up with the Soviet Union after that nation's launch of Sputnik 1 on October 4, 1957.
Shipments to the Soviet Union under the Lend-Lease program numbered at least 30, 000.
Things changed in 1953 with the Soviet testing of their first hydrogen bomb, but it was not until 1954 that the Atlas missile program was given the highest national priority.
The successful development of the Soviet nuclear program enabled the country to become the world's second nuclear weapons power ; the later Soviet space program began as a spin-off of the nuclear project.
* 1966 – The Soviet Union launches the unmanned Luna 9 spacecraft as part of the Luna program.
Still more settlers came in the late 1960s and 1970s, when the government paid handsome bonuses to workers participating in a program to relocate Soviet industry close to the extensive coal, gas, and oil deposits of Central Asia.
His works later inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers such as Sergey Korolyov and Valentin Glushko and contributed to the success of the Soviet space program.
Soviet and included
Others deported to Auschwitz included 150, 000 Poles, 23, 000 Roma and Sinti, 15, 000 Soviet prisoners of war, some 400 Jehovah's Witnesses and tens of thousands of people of diverse nationalities.
With the establishment of the Soviet system and the entrenchment of a proletarian cultural direction — the culture of the working classes, which included that of village labourers — was actively supported by the Soviet establishment.
Its stated goal was “ to destroy the Russian forces deployed in the West and to prevent their escape into the wide-open spaces of Russia .” A key factor was the surprise attack which included the near annihilation of the total Soviet airforce by simultaneous attacks on airfields.
The book also included the claim that, during the Pact's operation, Stalin rejected Hitler's offer to share in a division of the world, without mentioning the Soviet offers to join the Axis.
Soon after independence, the leaders of the four former Soviet Central Asian Republics met in Tashkent and declared that the definition of Central Asia should include Kazakhstan as well as the original four included by the Soviets.
This revival of Vertov's legacy included rehabilitation of his reputation in the Soviet Union, with retrospectives of his films, biographical works and writings.
The Finnish-Soviet Agreement of Friendship, Co-operation, and Mutual Assistance ( and the restrictions included therein ) was annulled but Finland recognised the Russian Federation as the successor of the USSR and was quick to draft bilateral treaties of goodwill as well as reallocating Soviet debts.
When the US Marines landed on the island, they discovered a large amount of documents, which included agreements between the Soviet Government, and the New Jewel Movement, recorded minutes of the Committee meetings, and reports from the Grenadian embassy in Moscow.
These included the communist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan ( PDPA ), which had close ideological ties to the Soviet Union.
Early reports estimated that $ 6 – 20 billion had been spent by the U. S. and Saudi Arabia but more recent reports state that the U. S. and Saudi Arabia provided as much as up to $ 40 billion in cash and weapons, which included over two thousand FIM-92 Stinger surface-to-air missiles, for building up Islamic groups against the Soviet Union.
In the Soviet Union, Literaturnaja Gazeta, a publication of Soviet intellectuals, included an editorial and statement by Russian physicians against the encyclical.
Treaties signed in 1947 and 1948 with the Soviet Union included obligations and restraints on Finland, as well as territorial concessions.
Egyptian president Anwar Sadat — whose policies included opening Egypt to Western investment ( Infitah ), breaking with Soviet Union to make Egypt an ally of the United States, and making peace with Israel — released Islamists from prison and welcomed home exiles in tacit exchange for political support in his struggle against leftists.
This included Leon Trotsky, the principal critic of Stalin among the early Soviet leaders.
" The book also included the claim that, during the Pact's operation, Stalin rejected Hitler's offer to share in a division of the world, without mentioning the Soviet offers to join the Axis.
By the last statement, Ribbentrop clearly implied that the Soviet Union should be included in the anti-British alliance system he had proposed.
As in many former Soviet republics, after Kyrgyzstan regained independence in August 1991 many individuals, organizations, and political parties sought to reestablish ( and, to a certain extent, to create from scratch ) a Kyrgyz national cultural identity ; often one that included a backlash against Russians.
Anti-tank missiles reported in service included 400 French / German MILAN, and 620 + AT-3, AT-4, and AT-5, all of Soviet manufacture.
Reported anti-aircraft artillery included Soviet 57 mm S-60, 23 mm self-propelled ZSU-23-4 and ZU-23-2, Czech M53 / 59 Praga, and Swedish Bofors 40mm guns.
Small arms reported in service included TT pistol, Browning Hi-Power, Beretta M12, FN P90, FN FAL, SKS, AK-47, AKM and AK-103 assault rifles, the FN F2000, Soviet RPD machine gun, RPK machine gun, PK machine guns, DShK heavy machine gun, KPV heavy machine guns, SG-43 Goryunov, and a number of RPG-type and anti-aircraft missile systems: RPG-2, RPG-7, 9K32 Strela-2.
On 2 December, the Soviet issued a proclamation which included the following statement about the Tsarist government and its foreign debts:
After World War II, as General Designer of small arms for the Soviet Army, his design subordinates included the Germans Hugo Schmeisser, designer of the StG-44, and Werner Grüner ( of MG 42 fame ) who was a pioneer in sheet metal embossing technology in the 1950s.
In addition to stipulations of non-aggression, the treaty included a secret protocol dividing Romania, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland into German and Soviet spheres of influence, anticipating potential " territorial and political rearrangements " of these countries.
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