But by using structural reforms to widen opportunities for leaders and popular movements in the union republics to gain influence, Gorbachev also made it possible for nationalist, orthodox communist, and populist forces to oppose his attempts to liberalize and revitalize Soviet communism.

Within the space of these tendencies there has developed a coherent critique of " orthodox Marxism " that includes not only a rejection of the concept of " the transition " but a reconceptualization of the process of transcending capitalism that has remarkable similarities to ( Peter ) Kropotkin's thinking on this subject ... Thus one of the earliest political tendencies within which this approach appeared after the Russian revolution of 1917 was that of " Council Communism " which saw the " workers councils " in Germany ( see Bavarian Soviet Republic ), or the soviets in Russia, as new organizational forms constructed by the people.

Although delegates from the Soviet Union and Comintern had attended, the first congress ignored Lenin's advice by refusing to accept a temporary alliance between the communists and the " bourgeois democrats " who also advocated national revolution ; instead they stuck to the orthodox Marxist belief that only the urban proletariat could lead a socialist revolution.

The Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in August ended these hopes and also fatally damaged the chances of the orthodox communist parties drawing many recruits from the student protest movement.

Lysenko's work was officially discredited in the Soviet Union in 1964, leading to a renewed emphasis there to re-institute Mendelian genetics and orthodox science.

The Soviet political leadership had come to view orthodox science as offering empty promises, as unproductive in meeting the challenges and needs of the Communist state.

Trotsky had previously suggested that Lenin's method of organisation would lead to a dictatorship, but it is important to emphasise that after 1917 orthodox Trotskyists argue that the loss of democracy in the Soviet Union was caused by the failure of the revolution to successfully spread internationally and the consequent wars, isolation and imperialist intervention, not the Bolshevik style of organisation.

Examples include a thwarted operation to overthrow the Bolshevik government in 1918 by SIS agents Sidney George Reilly and Sir Robert Bruce Lockhart, as well as more orthodox espionage efforts within early Soviet Russia headed by Captain George Hill.

Starting in the 1960s, a ferocious debate has taken place within Cold War histriography between the advocates of the “ orthodox ” school which saw the Cold War as a case of Soviet aggression such as Vojtech Mastny against the proponents of the “ revisionist ” school which saw the Cold War as a case of American aggression.

The base-superstructure and stadialist formulations in the 1859 preface took on canonical status in the subsequent development of orthodox Marxism, in particular in dialectical materialism ( diamat, as it was known in the Soviet Union ).

It also set the stage for the reemergence in Czechoslovakia of a pro-Soviet regime and a politically orthodox environment under the leadership of Gustáv Husák and Miloš Jakeš, which lasted until 1989, even during perestroika in the Soviet Union.

In the orthodox explanation of Herbert Feis, a series of aggressive Soviet actions in 1945 – 47 in Poland, Iran, Turkey and elsewhere awakened the American public to this new danger to freedom and Truman responded.

The group was defined by their adherence to orthodox Soviet Marxism and their strong opposition to Euro-communism within the CPGB.

Solidarity is an organizational descendant of International Socialists, a Trotskyist organization based on the proposition that the Soviet Union was not a " degenerate workers ' state " ( as in orthodox Trotskyism ) but rather " bureaucratic collectivism ", a new and especially repressive class society.

He was an orthodox, pro-Moscow Communist and consistently supported the Soviet Union through various shifts in policy at the Kremlin.

Michel Piccoli starred in the film as a Russian orthodox Soviet citizen.

In 1991, as it became increasingly clear that Soviet communism would not last, a rift arose within the KKE between those who supported continuing efforts towards a reconciliation with the Euro-communists through Synaspismos, and orthodox communists who felt that communism was threatened internationally and favoured a return to ideological roots.

After the Revolution of 1917, views expressed by anthropologists in the USSR, and later the Soviet Bloc countries, were highly shaped by the requirement to conform to Marxist theories of social evolution.

The reforms and the PDPA's affinity to the Soviet Union were met with heavy resistance among the population, especially as the government attempted to enforce its Marxist policies by arresting or simply executing those who resisted.

During the 1930s and 1940s Joseph Stalin's NKVD carried out numerous assassinations outside of the Soviet Union, such as the killings of Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists leader Yevhen Konovalets, Ignace Poretsky, Fourth International secretary Rudolf Klement, Leon Trotsky, and the Workers ' Party of Marxist Unification ( POUM ) leadership in Catalonia.

It represented a powerful branch of communism that existed in opposition to the Soviet Union's " Marxist revisionism ".

At FU-Berlin, critical psychology was not really seen as a division of psychology and followed its own methodology, trying to reformulate traditional psychology on an unorthodox Marxist base and drawing from Soviet ideas of cultural – historical psychology, particularly Aleksey Leontyev.

Although some EPLF cadres at one time espoused a Marxist ideology, Soviet support for Mengistu had cooled their ardor.

Although he left the party in 1956 over the Soviet invasion of Hungary, he nevertheless remained a " historian in the Marxist tradition ," calling for a rebellion against Stalinism as a prerequisite for the restoration of communists ' " confidence in our own revolutionary perspectives ".

Following the Marxist coup of April 1978, the government under Nur Muhammad Taraki developed significantly closer ties with the Soviet Union and its communist satellites.

The Republican government was supported by a number of factions with conflicting aims, including the Workers ' Party of Marxist Unification ( POUM – Partido Obrero de Unificación Marxista ), the anarcho-syndicalist Confederación Nacional del Trabajo and the Unified Socialist Party of Catalonia ( a wing of the Spanish Communist Party, which was backed by Soviet arms and aid ).

Since real political power belongs to the sole legal party, in certain states under Marxist constitutions of the constitutionally socialist state type inspired by the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ( USSR ) and its constitutive Soviet republics, there was no formal office of head of state, but rather the leader of the legislative branch was considered to be the closest common equivalent of a head of state as a natural person.

In 1979 the Soviet Union deployed its 40th Army into Afghanistan, attempting to suppress an Islamic rebellion against an allied Marxist regime in the Afghan Civil War.

When the Soviet Union abandoned the Marxist Najibullah regime and withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989 ( the regime finally fell in 1992 ), the victory was seen by many Muslims as the triumph of Islamic faith over superior military power and technology that could be duplicated elsewhere.

Revolutionary socialist governments espousing Marxist concepts took power in a variety of countries in the 20th century, leading to the formation of such socialist states as the Soviet Union in 1922 and the People's Republic of China in 1949.

Leon Trotsky (, ; – 21 August 1940 ), born Lev Davidovich Bronshtein, was a Russian Marxist revolutionary and theorist, Soviet politician, and the founder and first leader of the Red Army.

American support for the long rule of the Somoza family had soured relations, and the FSLN government was committed to a Marxist ideology, with many of the leading Sandinista continuing long-standing relationships with the Soviet Union and Cuba.

Nikolai Ivanovich Bukharin (; – 15 March 1938 ) was a Russian Marxist, Bolshevik revolutionary, and Soviet politician.

Although not entirely corrupted, Soviet historiography was characterized by complex competition between Stalinist and anti-Stalinist Marxist historians.

Although central planning was largely supported by Marxist Leninists, some factions within the Soviet Union before the rise of Stalinism held positions contrary to central planning.

Stalinism is the ideology that Joseph Stalin conceived and implemented in the Soviet Union, and is generally considered a branch of Marxist – Leninist ideology but considered by some historians to be a significant deviation from this philosophy.

* Valentin Voloshinov ( 1895 – 1936 ) was a Soviet / Russian linguist, whose work has been influential in the field of literary theory and Marxist theory of ideology.

The People's Republic of China supported Robert Mugabe's Zimbabwe African National Union while the Soviet Union supported Joshua Nkomo's Zimbabwe African People's Union, competing militant Marxist organizations that sought an end to Rhodesia and the establishment of a one-party Communist state in its place.

The end result of Andreyev's labours was the establishment of an orchestral folk tradition in Tsarist Russia, which later grew into a movement within the Soviet Union.

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russian adherents to the CPSU tradition, particularly as it existed before Gorbachev, reorganised themselves as the Communist Party of the Russian Federation.

* 1935 – Pravda publishes a letter by Pavel Postyshev, who revives New Year tree tradition in the Soviet Union.

Kutia was also part of a common Eastern Orthodox tradition in the Russian Empire, which had waned in popularity as a result of the official atheism of the former Soviet Union, but has had a subsequent resurgence in Ukraine, Belarus and other former Soviet Republics.

* December 28 – Pravda publishes a letter from Pavel Postyshev, who revives the New Year tree tradition in the Soviet Union.

In his book The Cold War Gaddis argues that, in their use of the phrase " evil empire ," Reagan and his anti-Communist political allies were effective in breaking the détente tradition, thus laying the ground for the ultimate collapse of the Soviet Union.

The current post – World War II tradition of Presidential doctrines started with the 1947 Truman Doctrine, under which the U. S. provided support to the governments of Greece and Turkey as part of a Cold War strategy to keep those two nations out of the Soviet sphere of influence.

Chinese military doctrine is influenced by a number of sources including an indigenous classical military tradition characterized by strategists such as Sun Tzu and modern strategists such as Mao Zedong, along with Western and Soviet influences.

Japan's New Town program is heavily informed by the Anglo-American Garden City tradition, American neighborhood design, as well as Soviet strategies of industrial development.

The Holy Meal was a common Eastern Orthodox tradition in the Russian Empire, but during the era of the Soviet Union it was greatly discouraged as a result of the official atheism of the former former regime.

The naturally unaugmented lighting situations in the film exemplified low-key, natural lighting in filmwork at its most extreme outside of the Eastern European / Soviet filmmaking tradition ( itself exemplified by the harsh low-key lighting style employed by Soviet filmmaker Sergei Eisenstein ).

This was mainly valid before the translation of the Western legal tradition to Chinese which started in 1839 after which influence by Western tradition was brought to China, with periods of restoration of traditional Chinese law, influence by Soviet law ; specific is the common ordinary language used in Chinese laws which has significant educational role.

The Czechoslovakian women's team had a very long tradition of success and was the chief threat to the dominance of the Soviet women's team for decades.

Some Marxists, including Maoists and those to the left of the Trotskyist tradition, such as Tony Cliff, claim that the Soviet Union was imperialist.

This tradition stayed even in the Soviet era, and one of the finest band conductors of that era was Major General Semeon Chernetsky, who founded and became the first director of music of the Central Band of the Ministry of Defense of the Soviet Union from 1927 to 1951.

In the Stalinist tradition, the pre – 1860 Chinese presence in lands Tsarist Russia acquired with, the Treaty of Aigun and the Convention of Peking, became a politically incorrect subject in the Soviet press, “ inconvenient ” museum exhibits were removed from public view, and the Jurchen-script text about the Jin Dynasty stele, supported by a stone tortoise in the Khabarovsk Museum, was covered with cement.

Compared with other ruling Communist Parties, such as the Communist Party of Vietnam, the Communist Party of China and the Lao People's Revolutionary Party, the Communist Party of Cuba retains a stricter adherence to the tradition of Marxism-Leninism and the traditional Soviet model.

At the same time, Soviet musicologists engaged in developing a Russian avant-garde tradition were officially prohibited from going abroad.