The related position of methodological naturalism says that philosophy and science should at least operate under the assumptions of natural sciences ( and thus physicalism ).

The ideas and assumptions of philosophical naturalism were first seen in the works of the Ionian pre-Socratic philosophers.

Hume doggedly refused to enter into questions of his personal faith in the divine, but his assault on the logic and assumptions of theodicy and cosmogeny was devastating, and he concentrated on the provable and empirical in a way that would lead to utilitarianism and naturalism later.

Two fundamental assumptions that underlie formal education systems are that students ( a ) retain knowledge and skills they acquire in school, and ( b ) can apply them in situations outside the classroom.

Two key assumptions underlie this cognitive approach: ( 1 ) that the memory system is an active organized processor of information and ( 2 ) that prior knowledge plays an important role in learning.

Such assumptions underlie even descriptive statistics.

Beta elements were seen as cognate to the underpinnings of the " basic assumptions " identified in his work with groups: " the fundamental anxieties that underlie the basic assumption group resistances were originally thought of as proto-mental phenomena ... forerunners of Bion's later concept of beta-elements.

Similarly, the likes of ABC, Kevin P. Coyne and Somu Subramaniam have stated that three dubious assumptions underlie the five forces:

There are four assumptions that underlie the use of ANCOVA and affect interpretation of the results:

Through communicative learning, learners must work towards critically reflecting assumptions that underlie intentions, values, beliefs, and feelings.

When this occurs, educators critically examine the assumptions that underlie their practice, the consequences to their assumptions, and develop alternative perspectives on their practice.

Noam Chomsky has said that Anthony Lewis is at " the far left of the spectrum " that is available in the mainstream media, and thus is useful in discovering the tacit assumptions that underlie all mainstream discussion.

Systems of scansion, and the assumptions ( often tacit or even subconscious ) that underlie them, are so numerous and contradictory that it is often difficult to tell whether differences in scansion indicate opposed metrical theories, conflicting understandings of a line's linguistic character, divergent practical goals, or whether they merely constitute a trivial argument over who has the " better ear " for verse.

These works offer an analysis and criticism of the legal, political, moral, and epistemological assumptions that underlie much of modern thought.

This emergent research and scientific activity requires numerous meta-philosophical and meta-theoretical assumptions.

Central to this synthesis were common assumptions and institutional frames of reference, including the religious norms found in Christianity, scientific norms found in classical physics, as well as the idea that the depiction of external reality from an objective standpoint was not only possible but desirable.

The adoption of a scientific outlook and attitude of continual adjustment by the individual toward his or her assumptions was the way, so he claimed.

" It is in this way that systems theorists attempted to provide alternatives and an evolved ideation from orthodox theories with individuals such as Max Weber, Émile Durkheim in sociology and Frederick Winslow Taylor in scientific management, which were grounded in classical assumptions.

Antirealists point to either the history of science, epistemic morals, the success of false modeling assumptions, or widely termed postmodern criticisms of objectivity as evidence against scientific realisms.

As interpreted in contemporary scientific practice, " entities should not be multiplied beyond necessity " advises opting for the simplest theory among a set of competing theories that have a comparable explanatory power, discarding assumptions that do not improve the explanation.

Rather, the scientific method is used to proof the integrity of a value system and to establish its conclusions as consistent with the assumptions used, thereby enabling further extrapolation within that domain.

Possessing profound scientific intuition and open-minded rigour, he usually ended up challenging the cherished assumptions of others and, to the discomfiture of the scientific establishment, often found them wanting.

Perceptions of reality through this kind of scientific attitude, selecting one aspect as distinct from others for study, will necessarily be governed by fundamental assumptions about how these various kinds of meaning are related to one another in a coherent whole, belonging within the total range of all experiences.

According to Merton, " paradigm ", refers to " exemplars of codified basic and often tacit assumptions, problem sets, key concepts, logic of procedure, and selectively accumulated knowledge that guide and empirical inquiry in all scientific fields ".

Other psychiatrists, before and after Kasanin, have made scientific observations of schizoaffective disorder based on assumptions of a biological and genetic etiology of the illness.

In more recent times, the creation-evolution controversy has resulted in many religious believers in a supernatural creation to challenge some naturalistic assumptions that have been proposed in some of the branches of scientific fields such as evolutionary biology, geology, and astronomy.

* Ludwik Fleck establishes scientific constructivism by introducing the notions of thought collective ( Denkkollektiv ), and thought style ( Denkstil ), through which the evolution of science is much more understandable, because the research objects can be described in terms of the assumptions ( thought style ) that are shared for practical but also inherently social reasons, or just because any thought collective tends to preserve itself.

Cooper states that the fundamental problem in ufology is not the lack of scientific methodology, as many ufologists have striven to meet standards of scientific acceptability, but rather the fact that the assumptions on which the research is often based are considered highly speculative.

To quote: " This post hoc reasoning back to a priori assumptions has minimal scientific value as it is not readily subject to falsification.

Carlson's bequest enabled Stevenson to set up the Division of Personality Studies at the University of Virginia, with the founding principle of conducting " scientific empirical investigation of phenomena that suggest that currently accepted scientific assumptions and theories about the nature of mind or consciousness, and its relationship to matter, may be incomplete.

Maybe we barbers should test these assumptions analytically, through experimentation and a " scientific method ".

Whereas Kuhn's paradigm is an all-encompassing collection of beliefs and assumptions that result in the organization of scientific worldviews and practices, Foucault's episteme is not merely confined to science but to a wider range of discourse ( all of science itself would fall under the episteme of the epoch ).

This approach follows from evidence that neoclassical economics provides a scientific explanation of economic phenomena, an explanation that economists state represents the status of scientific truth ( if, and only if, all of the assumptions involved in deriving the economic analysis are simultaneously satisfied ).

A. M. Wergeland called the Adams method literally antihistorical, while Clive Day maintained that the assumptions were not confined to theories alone but were also applicable to straight factual evidence.

Because the levels themselves are random variables, some assumptions and the method of contrasting the treatments ( a multi-variable generalization of simple differences ) differ from the fixed-effects model.

When these assumptions are violated or other statistical properties are desired, other estimation techniques such as maximum likelihood estimation, generalized method of moments, or generalized least squares are used.

the commonly-used ordinary least squares method may not recover the theoretical relation desired or may produce estimates with poor statistical properties, because the assumptions for valid use of the method are violated.

Like Marx, the Young Hegelians were critical of Hegel's metaphysical assumptions, but still adopted his dialectical method in order to criticise established society, politics, and religion.

This is in accord with the analytical method which has since come to be called Ockham's razor, the principle that the explanation of any phenomenon should make as few assumptions as possible.

In part this limitation arose from the fact that consciousness raising, as " the primary method of understanding women's condition " in the movement at this time and its " most successful organizing tool ", led to an emphasis on personal experience that concealed " prior political and philosophical assumptions ".

The method of common sense espoused by such philosophers as Thomas Reid and G. E. Moore points out that whenever we investigate anything at all, whenever we start thinking about some subject, we have to make assumptions.

Abductive validation is a method for identifying the assumptions that will lead to your goal.

Meanwhile there exist many different methods, partly extensions of the Swadesh method, now more and more under the biological assumptions of replacements in genes.

Two assumptions underpinned the British approach to HAA fire ; first, aimed fire was the primary method and this was enabled by predicting gun data from visually tracking the target and having its height.

It would appear from both these later derivations that the only assumptions really needed for the inequality itself ( as opposed to the method of estimation of the test statistic ) are that the distribution of the possible states of the source remains constant and the detectors on the two sides act independently.

" Despite this admission, it seems Descartes ' project for understanding the world was that of re-creating creation-a cosmological project which aimed, through Descartes particular brand of experimental method, to show not merely the possibility of such a system, but to suggest that this way of looking at the world-one with ( as Descartes saw it ) no assumptions about God or nature-provided the only basis upon which he could see knowledge progressing ( as he states in Book II ).

" This method works from the following three assumptions:

Factors to be considered include comparability of tested and independent items, reliability of available data and assumptions under the method, and validation of the results of the method by other methods.

One method not requiring preliminary assumptions on the lightning distribution is based on the decomposition of the average background Schumann resonance spectra, utilizing ratios between the average electric and magnetic spectra and between their linear combination.

The Canadian Expert Advisory Committee 2008 review of Insite did not declare the method by which it concluded that 1. 08 lives are saved by the facility each year, but Drug Free Australia claims that the EMCDDA method, used with Canadian data and assumptions, yields the same result.

A study published in April 2007 by the CPP's chief actuary showed that this type of funding method is " robust and appropriate " given reasonable assumptions about future conditions.

The cardinal method in " utils " is seldom used in pure theory today because of aggregation problems that make the meaning of the method doubtful, except on widely challenged underlying assumptions.