The chloroplast is surrounded by a double-layered composite membrane with an intermembrane space ; further, it has reticulations, or many infoldings, filling the inner spaces.

Dictyocha has one golden-brown chloroplast and a long flagellum extended into a wing-like shape.

* Analysis of DNA sequences suggests that horizontal gene transfer has also occurred within eukaryotes from the chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes to the nuclear genome.

Each compartment has one chloroplast, and no flagella.

Backing has come from matK sequences of chloroplast genes while a questionable placement of Cassytha has been concluded from analysis of intergenetic spacers of chloroplast and nuclear genomes.

Passion flowers have been a subject of studies investigating extranuclear inheritance ; paternal inheritance of chloroplast DNA has been documented in this genus.

It has been found that in some species, the chloroplast genome has evolved in complex and highly unusual ways.

PPG, however, is more difficult to recycle and has to move from the chloroplast to the peroxisomes, and then to the mitochondria, undergoing many reactions on the way, before the atoms can return into the Calvin cycle.

Electron microscopy however has revealed part of the transformation from chloroplast to chromoplast.

It has a cell wall made of hydroxyproline-rich glycoproteins, a large cup-shaped chloroplast, a large pyrenoid, and an " eyespot " that senses light.

The C. reinhardtii chloroplast genome can be transformed using microprojectile particle bombardment and the nuclear genome has been transformed with both glass bead agitation and electroporation.

This luminescence has been a useful device in the study of plant chloroplast function and as a reporter gene.

Intergeneric chloroplast gene transfer by an undetermined mechanism – though probably not hybridization – has occurred at least twice from vervains to Glandularia, between the ancestors of the present-day South American lineages and once more recently, between V. orcuttiana or V. hastata and G. bipinnatifida.

Based on the amino acid sequences, it seems that MDH has diverged into two main phylogenetic groups that closely resemble either mitochondrial isozymes or cytoplasmic / chloroplast isozymes.

One group of ferredoxins, originally found in chloroplast membranes, has been termed " chloroplast-type " or " plant-type ".

Each cell has two flagella with two contractile vacuoles at their base, an eyespot, and a large cup-shaped chloroplast with at least one pyrenoid.

In plants, the mitochondrial DNA has very high rates of structural mutations, so is rarely used for genetic markers, as the chloroplast genome can be used instead.

Each cell has a single girdle-like and parietal chloroplast and two to many pyrenoids are present in each chloroplast

It also contains ribosomes ; however most of its proteins are encoded by genes contained in the host cell nucleus, with the protein products transported to the chloroplast.

In addition, this creates a proton gradient across the chloroplast membrane ; its dissipation is used by ATP synthase for the concomitant synthesis of ATP.

The chloroplast SRP can interact with its target proteins either post-translationally or co-translationally, thus transporting imported proteins as well as those that are translated inside the chloroplast.

This may be interpreted as suggesting that the ancestral heterokont was an alga, and all colorless groups arose through loss of the secondary endosymbiont and its chloroplast.

Chlorella contains the green photosynthetic pigments chlorophyll-a and-b in its chloroplast.

Elysia pusilla feeds on the green alga Halimeda and incorporates chloroplast s into its body.

The term genome can be applied specifically to mean that stored on a complete set of nuclear DNA ( i. e., the " nuclear genome ") but can also be applied to that stored within organelles that contain their own DNA, as with the " mitochondrial genome " or the " chloroplast genome ".

The material within the chloroplast is called the stroma, corresponding to the cytosol of the original bacterium, and contains one or more molecules of small circular DNA.

Dipsacales phylogeny based on chloroplast DNA sequences.

The DNA found within the chloroplast may be referred to as the " plastome ".

For example, bacterial chromosomes, plasmids, mitochondrial DNA and chloroplast DNA are usually circular double-stranded DNA molecules, while chromosomes of the eukaryotic nucleus are usually linear double-stranded DNA molecules.

A biparental zygote is a Chlamydomonas ( a kind of algae ) zygote that contains chloroplast DNA ( cpDNA ) from both parents.

In September 2005, New Scientist reported that researchers at the Canberra Institute of Technology had identified a new type of Cannabis based on analysis of mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.

The circumscription of the Rosoideae is still not wholly certain ; recent genetic research < ref name = Eriksson > ( 2003 ): The Phylogeny of Rosoideae ( Rosaceae ) based on sequences of the internal transcribed spacers ( ITS ) of nuclear ribosomal DNA and the TRNL / F region of chloroplast DNA.

* Transfer of mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA to the nucleus

Starting from the four genera accepted by Øllgaard, a study based on chloroplast DNA produced the cladogram shown below ( reproduced here to genus level only ), confirming the monophyly of the four genera, and their distance from Isoetes.

Some species ( noted below ) had differing relationships indicated by their nuclear DNA ( paternally inherited ) and chloroplast DNA sequences ( maternally inherited ), a clear indication of likely hybrid origin.

Another application of molecular phylogeny is in DNA barcoding, wherein the species of an individual organism is identified using small sections of mitochondrial DNA or chloroplast DNA.

This phylogeny was based on 6000 basepairs of chloroplast DNA.

Currently there is some uncertainty over the exact evolutionary relationships among these four lineages, although this may be nearing resolution as data on a variety of coding and non-coding DNA sequences from all three genomes ( chloroplast, mitochondrion and nucleus ) in addition to protein sequences are brought to bear on the problem.

The word chloroplast ( χλωροπλάστης ) is derived from the Greek words chloros ( χλωρός ), which means green, and plastis ( πλάστης ), which means " the one who forms ".

In the alga Chlorella, there is only one chloroplast, which is bell-shaped.

In addition, most cyanobacteria use phycobiliproteins, water soluble pigments which occur in the cytoplasm of the chloroplast, to capture light energy and pass it on to the chlorophylls.

Examples include the high-density ( HDL ) and low-density ( LDL ) lipoproteins, which enable fats to be carried in the blood stream, the transmembrane proteins of the mitochondrion and the chloroplast, and bacterial lipoproteins.

The chloroplast contains bands composed of a variable number of the photosynthetic thylakoids which are not organised into grana-like structures.

This species is, effectively, a free radical, and is very reactive and allows an electron to be transferred to acceptors which are adjacent to the chlorophyll in the chloroplast.

The second membrane presents a barrier between the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum and the primary endosymbiont or chloroplast, which represents the next two membranes, within which the thylakoid membranes are found.

A cost of 1 ATP is associated with conversion to 3-phosphoglycerate ( PGA ) ( Phosphorylation ), within the chloroplast, which is then free to reenter the Calvin cycle.

A recent study which analyzed the phylogenetic relationships within the Bambusoideae using rp116 intron sequence data from chloroplast DNA was able to further resolve some of the uncertainties remaining in Clark et al .’ s ( 1995 ) analysis.

The concentration of NADPH in the chloroplast may help regulate which pathway electrons take through the light reactions.

This non-mendelian inheritance pattern was later traced to a gene named iojap which codes for a small protein required for proper assembly of the chloroplast ribosome.