Some subviral particles also cause disease: the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, which include Kuru, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (" mad cow disease "), are caused by prions, and hepatitis D is due to a satellite virus.

Hepatitis D, also referred to as hepatitis D virus ( HDV ) and classified as Hepatitis delta virus, is a disease caused by a small circular enveloped RNA virus.

It is one of five known hepatitis viruses: A, B, C, D, and E. HDV is considered to be a subviral satellite because it can propagate only in the presence of the hepatitis B virus ( HBV ).

In combination with hepatitis B virus, hepatitis D has the highest mortality rate of all the hepatitis infections of 20 %.

Hepatitis D virus was first reported in the mid-1977, by an Italian researcher, Mario Rizzetto, as a nuclear antigen in patients infected with HBV who had severe liver disease This nuclear antigen was then thought to be a hepatitis B antigen and was called the delta antigen.

The nucleocapsid contains single-stranded, circular RNA of 1679 nucleotides and about 200 molecules of hepatitis D antigen ( HDAg ) for each genome.

The routes of transmission of hepatitis D are similar to those for hepatitis B.

It is one of five known hepatitis viruses: A, B, C, D, and E. Infection with this virus was first documented in 1955 during an outbreak in New Delhi, India.

The most common causes of viral hepatitis are the five unrelated hepatotropic viruses Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C, Hepatitis D, and Hepatitis E. In addition to the hepatitis viruses, other viruses that can also cause hepatitis include Herpes simplex, Cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, or Yellow fever though the term " viral hepatitis " does not include aforementioned virus except Hepatitis viruses A to E.

In October 2000 she received a life-saving liver transplant after being diagnosed with autoimmune hepatitis at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center by John Vierling, M. D.

In 1980, NYU professor Saul Krugman, M. D., developed the first vaccine against hepatitis B.

1980: Saul Krugman, M. D., professor of pediatrics, develops the first vaccine against hepatitis B.

Although Group VII viruses such as hepatitis B contain a DNA genome, they are not considered DNA viruses according to the Baltimore classification, but rather reverse transcribing viruses because they replicate through an RNA intermediate.

For example, the region of the hepatitis C virus genome that encodes the core protein is highly conserved, because it contains an RNA structure involved in an internal ribosome entry site.

In chronic hepatitis B, however, the integration of the viral genome into infected cells can directly induce a non-cirrhotic liver to develop HCC.

* 1974-Isolation of genome of a virus that causes hepatitis B and a common form of liver cancer

Tumor viruses come in a variety of forms: viruses with a DNA genome, such as adenovirus, and viruses with an RNA genome, like the Hepatitis C virus ( HCV ) can cause cancers, as can retroviruses having both DNA and RNA genomes ( Human T-lymphotropic virus and hepatitis B virus, which normally replicates as a mixed double and single-stranded DNA virus but also has a retroviral replication component ).

It contains the virus which has the largest known nonsegmented RNA genome, the mouse hepatitis virus ( MHV ), which has a genome of 31. 5kb.

Biotechnology is also commonly associated with landmark breakthroughs in new medical therapies to treat hepatitis B, hepatitis C, cancers, arthritis, haemophilia, bone fractures, multiple sclerosis, and cardiovascular disorders.

As a result there is little or no microscopic evidence of hepatitis ( immune-mediated destruction of hepatocytes ).

In Dashhowuz Province, which has suffered the greatest ecological damage from the Aral Sea's desiccation, bacteria levels in drinking water exceeded ten times the sanitary level ; 70 % of the population has experienced illnesses, many with hepatitis, and infant mortality is high.

It is speculated that this differential approach to care stems from stigma towards HIV and hepatitis C, rooted largely in fears and misconceptions around transmission and assumptions about patient lifestyle and risk.

One main motivation for the study of viruses is the fact that they cause many important infectious diseases, among them the common cold, influenza, rabies, measles, many forms of diarrhea, hepatitis, Dengue fever, yellow fever, polio, smallpox and AIDS.

Another example is the association of infection with hepatitis B and hepatitis C viruses and liver cancer.

Acute viral hepatitis is more likely to be asymptomatic in younger people.

A small proportion of people with acute hepatitis progress to acute liver failure, in which the liver is unable to clear harmful substances from the circulation ( leading to confusion and coma due to hepatic encephalopathy ) and produce blood proteins ( leading to peripheral edema and bleeding ).

With rigorous external reviews ensuring that only the most innovative research secures funding, the IRP is responsible for many scientific accomplishments, including the discovery of fluoride to prevent tooth decay, the use of lithium to manage bipolar disorder, and the creation of vaccines against hepatitis, Haemophilus influenzae ( HIB ), and human papillomavirus.

One form of human interferon named " interferon alpha " is well-established as part of the standard treatment for hepatitis B and C, and other interferons are also being investigated as treatments for various diseases.

A monoclonal drug is now being sold to help fight respiratory syncytial virus in babies, and antibodies purified from infected individuals are also used as a treatment for hepatitis B.

Jaundice is often seen in liver disease such as hepatitis or liver cancer.

There is evidence suggesting that hereditary haemochromatosis patients affected with other liver ailments such as hepatitis or alcoholic liver disease suffer worse liver disease than those with either condition alone.

Hepatitis C is an infectious disease affecting primarily the liver, caused by the hepatitis C virus ( HCV ).

Cirrhosis is more common in those co-infected with hepatitis B or HIV, alcoholics, and those of male gender.

The hepatitis C virus ( HCV ) is a small, enveloped, single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus.

Screening is also recommended in those with elevated liver enzymes as this is frequently the only sign of chronic hepatitis.

Those with chronic are advised to avoid alcohol and medications toxic to the liver, and to be vaccinated for hepatitis A and hepatitis B. Ultrasound surveillance for hepatocellular carcinoma is recommended in those with accompanying cirrhosis.

Ribavirin ( brand names: Copegus, Rebetol, Ribasphere, Vilona, and Virazole ) is an anti-viral drug indicated for severe RSV infection ( individually ), hepatitis C infection ( used in conjunction with peginterferon alfa-2b or peginterferon alfa-2a ), and other viral infections.

High urine copper levels are not unique to Wilson's disease ; they are sometimes observed in autoimmune hepatitis and in cholestasis ( any disease obstructing the flow of bile from the liver to the small bowel ).

Because research in pathogenesis is difficult when precise animal models are unavailable, the disease-causing mechanisms in many diseases, including tuberculosis and hepatitis B, are poorly understood, but the pathogens responsible are very well established.

Genotypes 3 and 4 infect humans, pigs and other animal species and have been responsible for sporadic cases of hepatitis E in both developing and industrialized countries.

Lactoferrin acts, mostly in vitro, on a wide range of human and animal viruses based on DNA and RNA genomes, including the herpes simplex virus 1 and 2, cytomegalovirus, HIV, hepatitis C virus, hantaviruses, rotaviruses, poliovirus type 1, human respiratory syncytial virus and murine leukemia viruses.

In 1985, the first human vaccine obtained by genetic engineering from animal cells, the vaccine against hepatitis B, was developed by Pierre Tiollais and collaborators.