) Functionalism as a sociological credo is, therefore, not a direct consequence of observations, but rather an indirect consequence of philosophical inference and judgment.

The use of unit treatment additivity and randomization is similar to the design-based inference that is standard in finite-population survey sampling.

Thus, an axiom is an elementary basis for a formal logic system that together with the rules of inference define a deductive system.

This inference is supported by the date of the building of the 200 triremes for the war against Aegina on the advice of Themistocles, which is given in the Constitution of Athens as 483-482 BC.

Law is the rule which establish that a principle, provision, references, inference, observation, etc.

" It is commonly supposed that by jactus lapidum, Fitzstephen meant the game of bowls, but though it is possible that round stones may sometimes have been employed in an early variety of the game-and there is a record of iron bowls being used, though at a much later date, on festive occasions at Nairn ,-nevertheless the inference seems unwarranted.

In propositional logic, biconditional introduction is a valid rule of inference.

Biconditional elimination is the name of two valid rules of inference of propositional logic.

For some schools of Hinduism and Buddhism the received textual tradition is an epistemological category equal to perception and inference ( although this is not necessarily true for some other schools ).

A decision-theoretic justification of the use of Bayesian inference ( and hence of Bayesian probabilities ) was given by Abraham Wald, who proved that every admissible statistical procedure is either a Bayesian procedure or a limit of Bayesian procedures.

A possible inference is, that one can not be blamed for mistaken judgements if the motivation was to do good.

Conjunction introduction ( often abbreviated simply as conjunction ) is a valid rule of inference of propositional logic.

It is the inference that if the proposition p is true, and proposition q is true, then the logical conjunction of the two propositions p and q is true.

The inference of the question is that gays are not like other human beings ".

Experiments and computational models in Multimodal integration have shown that sensory input from different senses is integrated in a statistically optimal way, in addition, it appears that the kind of inferences used to infer single sources for multiple sensory inputs uses a Bayesian inference about the causal origin of the sensory stimuli.

" The contention is that this is a syllogistic inference, for it appears to require the extra premise: " Whatever has the property of thinking, exists ", a premise Descartes did not justify.

Thirdly, Mill's position, by calling mathematics merely another species of inductive inference, misapprehends mathematics.

The uniform position amongst the states is that neither the judge nor the jury is permitted to draw any adverse inference about the defendant's culpability, where he / she does not answer police questions

In Unruh's view that flaw is, in the case that an obstacle exists at the position of the dark fringes, " drawing the inference that IF the particle was detected in detector 1, THEN it must have come from path 1.

: I agree that notice of infringing content, and a failure to respond by " taking it down " may in some circumstances lead to a finding of " authorization "... An overly quick inference of " authorization " would put the Internet Service Provider in the difficult position of judging whether the copyright objection is well founded, and to choose between contesting a copyright action or potentially breaching its contract with the content provider.

The structural criterion requires that one who argues for or against a position should use an argument that meets the fundamental structural requirements of a well-formed argument, using premises that are compatible with one another, that do not contradict the conclusion, that do not assume the truth of the conclusion, and that are not involved in any faulty deductive inference.

Thus, the current metamorphic mineralogy of a komatiite will reflect the chemistry, which in turn represents an inference as to its volcanological facies and stratigraphic position.

Men, trees, automobiles, houses, and so on -- objects continually confronted in everyday life -- had each its characteristic blot-appearance and became easily recognizable, at the very beginning of tracing, by an inference as to what each was.

The scholar William Mitford suggested that Pelopidas was taken prisoner in battle, but the language of Demosthenes hardly supports such an inference.

Early Bayesian inference, which used uniform priors following Laplace's principle of insufficient reason, was called " inverse probability " ( because it infers backwards from observations to parameters, or from effects to causes ).

A theory of statistical inference was developed by Charles S. Peirce in " Illustrations of the Logic of Science " ( 1877 – 1878 ) and " A Theory of Probable Inference " ( 1883 ), two publications that emphasized the importance of randomization-based inference in statistics.

This type of refutation is valid only if the inference was from one Scripture, not if it was from two Scriptures.

This adds support to the inference that, at least at the beginning of his reign, Jehu was supported by the pro-Jehovah faction.

You might make some inference about the probability of heads and whether the coin was fair.

Popper thought that falsifiability was a better criterion because it did not invite the philosophical problems inherent in verifying an inductive inference, and it allowed statements from the physical sciences which seemed scientific but which did not satisfy the verification criterion.

Therefore, when a merger with a controlling stockholder was: 1 ) negotiated and approved by a special committee of independent directors ; and 2 ) conditioned on an affirmative vote of a majority of the minority stockholders, the business judgment standard of review should presumptively apply, and any plaintiff ought to have to plead particularized facts that, if true, support an inference that, despite the facially fair process, the merger was tainted because of fiduciary wrongdoing .″

The popularly held beliefs that Satan was once a prideful angel who eventually rebels against God, however, are not portrayed explicitly in the Bible and are mostly based on inference ( e. g., Ezekiel 28 and Isaiah 14: 12 – 17 ).

This inference is based on the fact that the term was used in two different ways during the republican era: during Terence's lifetime, it was used to refer to non-Carthaginian Libyco-Berbers, with the term Punicus reserved for the Carthaginians.

The evidence was seen as supporting the inference from the " Fighting Dinosaurs " fossil that Protoceratops was part of the diet of Velociraptor.

Upon further trial with heat, he was further convinced of the correctness of this inference, by finding that the India rubber could not be melted in boiling sulfur at any heat, but always charred.

By inference Tacitus was criticizing his own Roman culture for getting away from its roots — which was the perennial function of such comparisons.

The inference was obtained by cooling an exciton state below 5 K and further observing coherent light emission ( with interference patterns ) from it.

The necessary inference, as the authors themselves interpret it, would seem to be this: `` ( ( 1 ) Spatial qualities are not among those grasped by the sense of touch, as such.

As one would surmise, the procedure, however, could be repeated with the same object or with the same type of object often enough, so that the corresponding visual blots and the merest beginning of the tracing movement would provide clues as to the actual shape, which the patient then immediately could determine by a kind of inference.

The use of Bayesian probabilities as the basis of Bayesian inference has been supported by several arguments, such as the Cox axioms, the Dutch book argument, arguments based on decision theory and de Finetti's theorem.

In propositional logic, disjunction elimination ( sometimes named proof by cases or case analysis ), is the valid argument form and rule of inference that allows one to eliminate a disjunctive statement from a logical proof.

" Kant stated that all mathematical and scientific statements are synthetic a priori propositions because they are necessarily true but our knowledge about the attributes of the mathematical or physical subjects we can only get by logical inference.

" More precisely, it is " the quantitative analysis of actual economic phenomena based on the concurrent development of theory and observation, related by appropriate methods of inference.

Other verses by inference may be considered to refer to ' speaking in tongues ', such as Isaiah 28: 11, Romans 8: 26 and Jude 20.

Depending on the particular formalism adopted for the calculus, it may be seen as a simple application of a " functional substitution " rule of inference, as in Gödel's paper, or it may be proved by considering the formal proof of, replacing in it all occurrences of Q by some other formula with the same free variables, and noting that all logical axioms in the formal proof remain logical axioms after the substitution, and all rules of inference still apply in the same way.

Problems in describing the satuatated zone include the characterization of aquifers in terms of flow direction, groundwater pressure and, by inference, groundwater depth ( see: aquifer test ).

More recently the likelihood principle as a general principle of inference has been championed by A. W. F. Edwards.

In propositional logic, modus ponendo ponens ( Latin for " the way that affirms by affirming "; often abbreviated to MP or modus ponens ) or implication elimination is a valid, simple argument form and rule of inference.

In propositional logic, modus tollens ( or modus tollendo tollens and also denying the consequent ) ( Latin for " the way that denies by denying ") is a valid argument form and rule of inference.

Cultural memes will have the characteristic of Lamarckian inheritance when a host aspires to replicate the given meme through inference rather than by exactly copying it.