Here, H is the coatings removal force measured parallel to the surface of the substrate and T is the film thickness.

However, in the actual assessment of the cutting force by instrumental methods for any thickness of coating a number of spurious effects occur which must be taken into account and which make the measured value larger than the true cutting force indicated by eqn. ( 1 ).

< font face =" arial " color =" red "> Wire carrying current to be measured .</ font >< font face =" arial " color =" green "> Spring providing restoring force </ font > This illustration is conceptual ; in a practical meter, the iron core is stationary, and front and rear spiral springs carry current to the coil, which is supported on a rectangular bobbin.

Lastly, mechanical properties of these biopolymers can often be measured using optical tweezers or atomic force microscopy.

In a classical description, the lack of an external field also means that there is no field between the plates, and no force would be measured between them.

This force has been measured, and is a striking example of an effect purely due to second quantization.

It was not until 1997, however, that a direct experiment, by S. Lamoreaux, described above, quantitatively measured the force ( to within 15 % of the value predicted by the theory ), although previous work van Blockland and Overbeek ( 1978 ) had observed the force qualitatively, and indirect validation of the predicted Casimir energy had been made by measuring the thickness of liquid Helium films by Sabisky and Anderson in 1972.

with F the net force ( a vector ), m the mass of a particle and a the acceleration of the particle ( also a vector ) which would be measured by an observer at rest in the frame.

The amount of unemployment in an economy is measured by the unemployment rate, the percentage of workers without jobs in the labor force.

They charged a leyden jar ( a kind of capacitor ), and measured the electrostatic force associated with the potential ; then, they discharged it while measuring the magnetic force from the current in the discharge wire.

While pressure may be measured in any unit of force divided by any unit of area, the SI unit of pressure ( the newton per square metre ) is called the pascal ( Pa ) after the seventeenth-century philosopher and scientist Blaise Pascal.

Piezoelectricity of single individual collagen fibrils was measured using piezoresponse force microscopy, and it was shown that collagen fibrils behave predominantly as shear piezoelectric materials.

These include photon scanning microscopy ( PSTM ), which uses an optical tip to tunnel photons ; scanning tunneling potentiometry ( STP ), which measures electric potential across a surface ; spin polarized scanning tunneling microscopy ( SPSTM ), which uses a ferromagnetic tip to tunnel spin-polarized electrons into a magnetic sample, and atomic force microscopy ( AFM ), in which the force caused by interaction between the tip and sample is measured.

: r is the displacement vector ( a vector from the point from which torque is measured to the point where force is applied ), and r is the length ( or magnitude ) of the lever arm vector,

When the net force on the system is zero, the torque measured from any point in space is the same.

If the net force is not zero, and is the torque measured from, then the torque measured from is ...

In such situations, the Newtonian view is that there remains a force due to gravity which is not measured ( thus causing an apparent weight of zero ), while the Einsteinian view is that there never does exist a measurable force due to gravity, even in everyday experience.

Since all energies are measured relative to the vacuum, H is positive definite.

The total enthalpy, H, of a system cannot be measured directly.

The rotation period for Tau Ceti was measured by periodic variations in the classic H and K absorption lines of singly ionized calcium, or Ca II.

Serkowski measured CP of for the red supergiant NML Cygni and in the long period variable M star VY Canis Majoris in the H band, ascribing the CP to multiple scattering in circumstellar envelopes.

: where H is HDL cholesterol, L is LDL cholesterol, C is total cholesterol, T are triglycerides, and k is 0. 20 if the quantities are measured in mg / dl and 0. 45 if in mmol / l.

It has been proposed that cometary collisions with Earth might have supplied a large proportion of the water in the oceans, but the high D / H ratio measured in Hyakutake and other comets such as Hale – Bopp and Halley's Comet have caused problems for this theory.

Alternatively, if the symbol H is used to denote electron energy level measured relative to the Fermi level of the Earth, then in general we have H

It is this far field HRTF, H ( f, θ, φ ), that has most often been measured.

: H is the magnetic field strength, also measured in amperes per meter.

The computer had 2, 800 vacuum tubes, measured 10 ft ( 3 m ) by 2 ft ( 0. 6 m ) by 8½ ft ( 2. 6 m ) ( L × B × H ), and weighed 5 tons ( 4. 5 t ).

This is because to calculate power, not only E and H both have to be measured but the phase relationship between E and H must also be known.

where H is the equivalent absorbed dose ( measured in sieverts ), D the absorbed dose ( measured in grays ) and Q the quality factor, a dimensionless quantity whose value is dependent on the type of radiation in question, ranging from 1 in the case of gamma particles and X-rays to 20 in the case of neutrons and alpha particles.

) H < sub >∞</ sub > techniques can be used to minimize the closed loop impact of a perturbation: depending on the problem formulation, the impact will either be measured in terms of stabilization or performance.

Coercivity is usually measured in oersted or ampere / meter units and is denoted H < sub > C </ sub >.

The system delivers consistent, objectively measured, H & A grades.

Irradiation is generally measured in J / m < sup > 2 </ sup > and is represented by the symbol H.

In SI units, permeability is measured in henrys per meter ( H · m < sup >− 1 </ sup >), or newtons per ampere squared ( N · A < sup >− 2 </ sup >).

In SI units, permeability is measured in henrys per metre ( H · m < sup >− 1 </ sup > = J /( A < sup > 2 </ sup >· m ) = N A < sup >− 2 </ sup >).

The auxiliary magnetic field H has dimensions current per unit length and is measured in units of amperes per metre ( A m < sup >− 1 </ sup >).

The ship weighed and measured 125 ft x 28 ft x 14 ft ( 38. 1 m x 8. 5 m x 4. 3 m ) and was built in 1834 by Joseph H. Russell at Newcastle, Maine.

The crystals then had to be carefully prepared by skillfully cutting them into sections with facets that had a different orientation to that of the internal structure of the crystal, and the response to a magnetic field had to be painstakingly measured.

The entrance arches of the tunnel are in fact the cutting edges of the original tunnelling shield, which measured 30 feet 8 inches ( 9. 35 m ) in diameter, forming in effect a loading gauge for the tunnel.

The edge angle is measured between the surface of an edge and a line running from the point of the cutting edge to the back edge.

Equivalently, it is the voltage that would be measured by cutting the wire to create an open circuit, and attaching a voltmeter to the leads.

The included cutting angles of all kinds of sharp edge blades is measured using a laser reflecting goniometer.

Care related factors measured included whether or not a hospital had attained Nursing Magnet Status, the level of cutting edge technologies used at the institution, and the presence of an established Palliative Care Program.

Heavy duty flexible power cords such as those feeding a mine face cutting machine are carefully engineered — their life is measured in weeks.

Because of changes in the radio industry and the way radio audiences are measured, stations in this market are being forced to play too much Britney, Puffy and alternative music that is neither new nor cutting edge.

The origin of the term " footage " is that early 35 mm silent film has traditionally been measured in feet and frames ; the fact that film was measured by length in cutting rooms, and that there are 16 frames ( 4-perf film format ) in a foot of 35 mm film which roughly represented 1 second of silent film, made footage a natural unit of measure for film.

The geometric features of cutting tools can be automatically measured within the CNC tool grinder and the tool ground to return cutting surfaces to optimal condition.

Because of changes in the radio industry and the way radio audiences are measured, stations in this market are being forced to play too much Britney, Puffy and alternative music that is neither new nor cutting edge.