Resolution of these scholarly questions remained very difficult so long as no complete version of the Diatessaron in Syriac or Greek had been recovered ; while the medieval translations that had survived — in Arabic and Latin — both relied on texts that had been heavily corrected to conform better with later canonical versions of the separate Gospel texts.

The portion of the Greek Arithmetica that survived, however, was, like all ancient Greek texts transmitted to the early modern world, copied by, and thus known to, medieval Byzantine scholars.

As a result some texts of Galen exist only in Arabic translation, while others exist only in medieval Latin translations of the Arabic.

Other students have noted a range of textual similarities between passages in the Gospel of Barnabas, and variously the texts of a series of late medieval vernacular harmonies of the four canonical gospels ( in Middle English and Middle Dutch, but especially in Middle Italian ); which are all speculated as deriving from a lost Vetus Latina version of the Diatessaron of Tatian.

It is also difficult to accurately translate original alchemy texts, especially medieval Chinese texts which employ metaphor to describe unexplained phenomena, into contemporary scientific language with its rigidly defined terminology.

Other historians urge caution regarding claims of Islamic firearms use in the 1204-1324 period as late medieval Arabic texts used the same word for gunpowder, naft, that they used for an earlier incendiary naptha.

Many Greek and Arabic texts on mathematics were then translated into Latin, which led to further development of mathematics in medieval Europe.

Evidence of how Imbolc was celebrated in Gaelic Ireland is found in medieval Irish texts that mention the festival, besides folklore collected during the 19th and early 20th century in rural Ireland and the Scottish Highlands.

They base their Imbolc celebrations on traditional lore and customs derived from medieval Irish texts, and research into the older beliefs of the polytheistic Celts.

Goibniu, Creidhne and Luchta are referred to as Trí Dé Dána (" three gods of craftsmanship "), and the Dagda's name is interpreted in medieval texts as " the good god ".

The symbolism within the medieval illuminations, as explained by the accompanying texts, reveal allusions to medieval literature, art, science, law and philosophy.

His father in the folktale is one of a triad of brothers, Mac Cinnfhaelaidh, Gavida and Mac Samthainn, and his father in the medieval texts, Cian, is often mentioned together with his brothers Cú and Cethen.

From ancient texts to medieval maps, anything written down for study would have been done with manuscripts.

Likewise, Asian martial arts become well-documented during the medieval period, Japanese martial arts beginning with the establishment of the samurai nobility in the 12th century, Chinese martial arts with Ming era treatises such as Ji Xiao Xin Shu, Indian martial arts in medieval texts such as the Agni Purana and the Malla Purana, and Korean martial arts with Joseon era texts such as Muyejebo ( 1598 ).

Early writing on mineralogy, especially on gemstones, comes from ancient Babylonia, the ancient Greco-Roman world, ancient and medieval China, and Sanskrit texts from ancient India and the ancient Islamic World.

Against this some medieval Jewish polemical texts connect notzrim with the netsarim " watchmen " of Ephraim in Jeremiah 31: 6.

These depictions of punishment may have influenced medieval perceptions of the inferno in hell via early Christian and Coptic texts.

This method was applied to Classical Studies and to medieval texts as a way to reconstruct the author's original work.

Among medieval literary texts, Geoffrey Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde plays a special role because Chaucer's usage seems to challenge the truth value of proverbs by exposing their epistemological unreliability.

But to return to the main line of our inquiry, it is doubtful that Utopia is still widely read because More was medieval or even because he was a martyr -- indeed, it is likely that these days many who read Utopia with interest do not even know that its author was a martyr.

Remember that in seeking the modern in Utopia we do not deny the existence of the medieval and the Renaissance there ; ;

we do not even need to commit ourselves to assessing on the same inconceivable scale the relative importance of the medieval, the Renaissance, and the modern.

To derive Utopian communism from the Jerusalem Christian community of the apostolic age or from its medieval successors-in-spirit, the monastic communities, is with an appropriate shift of adjectives, misleading in the same way as to derive it from Plato's Republic: in the Republic we have to do with an elite of physical and intellectual athletes, in the apostolic and monastic communities with an elite of spiritual and religious athletes.

As the Middle Ages progressed in Italy, Italian cities began to rely mostly on mercenaries to do their fighting rather than the militias that had dominated the early and high medieval period in this region.

These later medieval lives do, however, reveal that during Goscelin's lifetime persons suffering from gout were urged to pray at Mellitus ' tomb.

While the absence of a perpendicular city plan in medieval Stockholm seem do indicate a spontaneous growth, it is known German merchants invited by Birger jarl played an important role in the foundation of the city.

Ronald Hutton notes that while medieval Irish authors do attribute a historical pagan significance to the Beltane festival, they are silent in this respect in regard to Samhain, apparently because no tradition of pagan ritual had survived into the Christian period.

Those who believe and those who are Jews and Christians, and Sabians, whoever believes in Allah and the Last Day and do righteous good deeds shall have their reward with their Lord, on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve ... let there be no compulsion in religion "-that all monotheistic religions or people of the book have a chance of salvation, to the most exclusive teaching common amongst Salafis and Wahhabis, and supported by several works of medieval Islamic theology and by traditions ( hadith ) which are considered correct ( sahih ) by Sunni Muslims, for the most part are summed up in Surah 9: 5, 29: " Then, when the sacred months have passed, slay the idolaters wherever ye find them, and take them, and besiege them, and lay in wait in every stratagem of war.

The term clerk derives from cleric, since in medieval times the clergy were one of the few groups who could read, and therefore were often employed to do bookkeeping and similar work.

It is evident that Vosill and DeWar are these two alien friends, now no longer in contact with each other, who have both come to the medieval planet and are independently attempting to do the " right thing " in their own differing ways, with Vosill being active and DeWar reactive.

The ancient street pattern survives extensively as do a high proportion of the medieval building plots and oak framed houses, albeit often masked with later facades.

" Taneli Kukkonen argues in the Oxford Handbook of Medieval Philosophy that " what Augustine's and Anselm's mix of eternalist and presentist, tenseless and tensed language tells is that medieval philosophers saw no need to choose sides " in the manner that modern philosophers do.

For a political theorist to do this in public was one of Machiavelli's clearest breaks not just with medieval scholasticism, but with the classical tradition of political philosophy, especially the favorite philosopher of Catholicism at the time, Aristotle.

Although some terms in academia do go out of style, such as " Dark Ages ", the term Barbarian is in full common currency among all mainstream medieval scholars and is not out of style or outdated, though a disclaimer is often felt to be needed, as when Ralph W. Mathisen prefaces a discussion of barbarian bishops in Late Antiquity, " It should also be noted that the word " barbarian " will be used here as a convenient, nonpejorative term to refer to all the non-Latin and non-Greek speaking exterae gentes who dwelt around, and even eventually settled within, the Roman Empire during late antiquity ".

It is often called cathedral glass, but this has nothing to do with medieval cathedrals, where the glass used was hand-blown.

Since most of these usages do not exist anymore, Voragine serves as a valuable source for the study of medieval Marian customs.

Secular medieval texts constantly refer to the washing of hands before and after meals, but Sone de Nansay, hero of a 13th century romance, discovers to his chagrin that the Norwegians do not wash up after eating.

Though some signs of Roman hydraulics survive, and there were also some medieval drainage works, land drainage was begun in earnest during the 1630s by the various investors who had contracts with King Charles I to do so.

When asked as to what the mask represents he has answered, " I do not look upon myself as a goblin, or troll, or elf, or medieval.

Still, even cultures that do not practice it may reflect older customs ; in medieval literature, such as Sir Degaré and Lay le Freine, the child is abandoned immediately after birth, which may reflect pre-Christian practices, both Scandavian and Roman, that the newborn would not be raised without the father's decision to do so.

In medieval Latin, praemunire was confused with and used for praemonere, to forewarn, as the writ commanded that the sheriff do ( facias ) warn ( praemunire ) the summoned person to appear before the Court.

Two teams, the Mélans and the Avresses, dress in medieval clothes while standing on stilts and do battle in one of the town's principal squares.