The convention also offers decision-makers guidance based on the precautionary principle that where there is a threat of significant reduction or loss of biological diversity, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to avoid or minimize such a threat.

The Biosafety Protocol makes clear that products from new technologies must be based on the precautionary principle and allow developing nations to balance public health against economic benefits.

Other guiding principles include the polluter pays principle, the precautionary principle, the principle of sustainable development, environmental procedural rights, common but differentiated responsibilities, intragenerational and intergenerational equity, " common concern of humankind ", and common heritage.

This has led a number of environmentalists to support the use of the precautionary principle in policy making, which ultimately asserts that we don ’ t know how certain actions may affect the environment, and because there is reason to believe they may cause more harm than good we should refrain from such actions.

Such cases led to a general mistrust of food additives, and an application of the precautionary principle led to the conclusion that only additives that are known to be safe should be used in foods.

In decision making, the precautionary principle is considered when possibly dangerous, irreversible, or catastrophic events are identified, but scientific evaluation of the potential damage is not sufficiently certain ( Toth et al., 2001, pp. 655 – 656 ).

The precautionary principle implies an emphasis on the need to prevent such adverse effects.

However, following the precautionary principle, uncertainty is not a reason for inaction, and this is acknowledged in Article 3. 3 of the UNFCCC ( Toth et al., 2001, p. 656 ).

Biosafety in agriculture, chemistry, medicine, exobiology and beyond will likely require application of the precautionary principle, and a new definition focused on the biological nature of the threatened organism rather than the nature of the threat.

The Biosafety Protocol makes clear that products from new technologies must be based on the precautionary principle and allow developing nations to balance public health against economic benefits.

Commonly known as the precautionary principle, Principle 15 states that " In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities.

In some legal systems, as in the law of the European Union, the application of the precautionary principle has been made a statutory requirement.

Many definitions of the precautionary principle exist.

Within this element lies an implicit reversal of the onus of proof: under the precautionary principle it is the responsibility of an activity proponent to establish that the proposed activity will not ( or is very unlikely to ) result in significant harm.

One of the primary foundations of the precautionary principle, and globally accepted definitions, results from the work of the Rio Conference, or " Earth Summit " in 1992.

The 1998 Wingspread Statement on the Precautionary Principle summarizes the principle this way: " When an activity raises threats of harm to human health or the environment, precautionary measures should be taken even if some cause and effect relationships are not fully established scientifically.

The February 2, 2000 European Commission Communication on the Precautionary Principle notes: " The precautionary principle applies where scientific evidence is insufficient, inconclusive or uncertain and preliminary scientific evaluation indicates that there are reasonable grounds for concern that the potentially dangerous effects on the environment, human, animal or plant health may be inconsistent with the high level of protection chosen by the EU ".

The precautionary principle is most often applied in the context of the impact of human actions on the environment and human health, as both involve complex systems where the consequences of actions may be unpredictable.

As applied to environmental policy, the precautionary principle stipulates that for practices such as the release of radiation or toxins or massive deforestation the burden of proof lies with the advocates.

Concerning potential risks to public health, examples of cases in which the precautionary principle has been advocated ( but not always accepted ) are: the commercialization of genetically modified foods, the use of growth hormones in cattle raising, measures to prevent the " mad cow " disease, health claims linked to phthalates in PVC toys, among many others.

Some evolutionary biologists, such as Richard Lewontin and the late Stephen Jay Gould have employed dialectical materialism in their approach, playing a precautionary heuristic role in their work.

In accordance with the precautionary approach, contained in Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, the objective of the Protocol is to contribute to ensuring an adequate level of protection in the field of the safe transfer, handling and use of ' living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology ' that may have adverse effects on the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, taking also into account risks to human health, and specifically focusing on transboundary movements ( Article 1 of the Protocol, SCBD 2000 ).

Elements of the precautionary approach are reflected in a number of the provisions of the Protocol, such as:

* The preamble, reaffirming " the precautionary approach contained in Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration on environment and Development ";

* Article 1, indicating that the objective of the Protocol is " in accordance with the precautionary approach contained in Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development ";

" In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities.

" They further suggest that even Class A treated sludge may have chemical contaminants ( including heavy metals, such as lead ) or endotoxins present, and a precautionary approach may be justified on this basis, though the vast majority of incidents reported by Lewis, et al.

: In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities.

In order to meet the problems of overfishing, a precautionary approach and Harvest Control Rule ( HCR ) management principles have been introduced in the main fisheries around the world.

The precautionary approach it prescribes is typically implemented in concrete management rules as minimum spawning biomass, maximum fishing mortality rates, etc.

The Fishery Manager's Guidebook issued in 2009 by the FAO of the United Nations, advises that the precautionary approach or principle should be applied when " ecosystem resilience and human impact ( including reversibility ) are difficult to forecast and hard to distinguish from natural changes.

Prevent harm as the best method of environmental protection and, when knowledge is limited, apply a precautionary approach.

A precautionary approach was adopted to seek to prevent pollution before damage was caused to the environment.

* Principle 7: support a precautionary approach to environmental challenges ;

Among the most important innovations brought by the 1996 Protocol is the codification of the " precautionary approach " and the " polluter pays principle.

Indicative for this shift are such elements as the codification of the precautionary approach and the establishment of requirements such as the " waste prevention audit ," the identification and control of the sources of contamination for certain materials, and the collaboration with relevant local and national agencies that are involved in point and non-point source pollution control.

CCAMLR has successfully implemented a precautionary and ecosystem approach in managing the krill fishery.

From a health point of view there is every reason to apply a precautionary approach.

• The Council of the European Union in 2004 applied " a precautionary approach " and closed the sensitive Darwin Mounds off Scotland to bottom trawling.

Some national radiation advisory authorities have recommended measures to minimize exposure to their citizens as a precautionary approach.

A research article suggested applying the precautionary principle to this controversy, which calls for public policy to reflect a conservative approach to minimize risk in the setting where harm is possible ( but not necessarily confirmed ) and where the science is not settled.