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The set of ( p < sub > i </ sub >, n < sub > i </ sub >) is thus a sampling of a continuous vector field V. The implicit function f is found by integrating the vector field V. Since not every vector field is the gradient of a function, the problem may or may not have a solution: the necessary and sufficient condition for a smooth vector field V to be the gradient of a function f is that the curl of V must be identically zero.
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The repeating periodicity of the blocks of 2, 6, 10, and 14 elements within sections of the periodic table arises naturally from the total number of electrons which occupy a complete set of s, p, d and f atomic orbitals, respectively.
Model theory generalizes the notion of algebraic extension to arbitrary theories: an embedding of M into N is called an algebraic extension if for every x in N there is a formula p with parameters in M, such that p ( x ) is true and the set
An example is the " divides " relation between the set of prime numbers P and the set of integers Z, in which every prime p is associated with every integer z that is a multiple of p ( and not with any integer that is not a multiple of p ).
The domain of F is the set of all inputs p on which it is defined.
The function F is called prefix-free if there are no two elements p, p ′ in its domain such that p ′ is a proper extension of p. This can be rephrased as: the domain of F is a prefix-free code ( instantaneous code ) on the set of finite binary strings.
Each of these strings p < sub > i </ sub > determines a subset S < sub > i </ sub > of Cantor space ; the set S < sub > i </ sub > contains all sequences in cantor space that begin with p < sub > i </ sub >.
The problem of finding the Delaunay triangulation of a set of points in d-dimensional Euclidean space can be converted to the problem of finding the convex hull of a set of points in ( d + 1 )- dimensional space, by giving each point p an extra coordinate equal to | p |< sup > 2 </ sup >, taking the bottom side of the convex hull, and mapping back to d-dimensional space by deleting the last coordinate.
An example of such a finite field is the ring Z / pZ, which is essentially the set of integers from 0 to p − 1 with integer addition and multiplication modulo p. It is also sometimes denoted Z < sub > p </ sub >, but within some areas of mathematics, particularly number theory, this may cause confusion because the same notation Z < sub > p </ sub > is used for the ring of p-adic integers.
It was while working on this problem that he discovered transfinite ordinals, which occurred as indices n in the nth derived set p ( n ) of a set S of zeros of a trigonometric series.
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A still weaker example is the axiom of countable choice ( AC < sub > ω </ sub > or CC ), which states that a choice function exists for any countable set of nonempty sets.
These states are labeled by a set of quantum numbers summarized in the term symbol and usually associated with particular electron configurations, i. e., by occupation schemes of atomic orbitals ( e. g., 1s < sup > 2 </ sup > 2s < sup > 2 </ sup > 2p < sup > 6 </ sup > for the ground state of neon -- term symbol: < sup > 1 </ sup > S < sub > 0 </ sub >).
Two results which follow from the axiom are that " no set is an element of itself ," and that " there is no infinite sequence ( a < sub > n </ sub >) such that a < sub > i + 1 </ sub > is an element of a < sub > i </ sub > for all i. "
A binary relation is the special case of an n-ary relation R ⊆ A < sub > 1 </ sub > × … × A < sub > n </ sub >, that is, a set of n-tuples where the jth component of each n-tuple is taken from the jth domain A < sub > j </ sub > of the relation.
Division of whole numbers can be thought of as a function ; if Z is the set of integers, N < sup >+</ sup > is the set of natural numbers ( except for zero ), and Q is the set of rational numbers, then division is a binary function from Z and N < sup >+</ sup > to Q.
NB: Z < sup > Y </ sup > is the set of all functions from Y to Z
The Boltzmann distribution for the fractional number of particles N < sub > i </ sub > / N occupying a set of states i possessing energy E < sub > i </ sub > is:
Some authors require in addition that μ ( C ) < ∞ for every compact set C. If a Borel measure μ is both inner regular and outer regular, it is called a regular Borel measure.
Note that a locally finite Borel measure automatically satisfies μ ( C ) < ∞ for every compact set C.
A Bézier curve is defined by a set of control points P < sub > 0 </ sub > through P < sub > n </ sub >, where n is called its order ( n
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This is one of many possible assignments, with for instance, any set of assignments including x < sub > 1 </ sub > = TRUE being sufficient.
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They had initially set up wooden statues of Artemis, a bretas, ( Pausanias, ( fl. c. 160 ): Description of Greece, Book I: Attica ).< ref >
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* In the year 1000, the Icelander Leif Ericson was the first European to set foot on North American soil, corresponding to today's Eastern coast of Canada, i. e. the province of Newfoundland and Labrador, including the area of land named " Vinland " by Ericson.
** Zorn's lemma: Every non-empty partially ordered set in which every chain ( i. e. totally ordered subset ) has an upper bound contains at least one maximal element.
* Hence, the set of algebraic numbers has Lebesgue measure zero ( as a subset of the complex numbers ), i. e. " almost all " complex numbers are not algebraic.
Specifically, in quantum mechanics, the state of an atom, i. e. an eigenstate of the atomic Hamiltonian, is approximated by an expansion ( see configuration interaction expansion and basis set ) into linear combinations of anti-symmetrized products ( Slater determinants ) of one-electron functions.
* Let Q be a set enclosed between two step regions S and T. A step region is formed from a finite union of adjacent rectangles resting on a common base, i. e. S ⊆ Q ⊆ T. If there is a unique number c such that a ( S ) ≤ c ≤ a ( T ) for all such step regions S and T, then a ( Q )
When a specific allophone ( from a set of allophones that correspond to a phoneme ) must be selected in a given context ( i. e. using a different allophone for a phoneme will cause confusion or make the speaker sound non-native ), the allophones are said to be complementary ( i. e. the allophones complement each other, and one is not used in a situation where the usage of another is standard ).
Since algorithms are platform-independent ( i. e. a given algorithm can be implemented in an arbitrary programming language on an arbitrary computer running an arbitrary operating system ), there are significant drawbacks to using an empirical approach to gauge the comparative performance of a given set of algorithms.
In number theory, an arithmetic, arithmetical, or number-theoretic function is a real or complex valued function ƒ ( n ) defined on the set of natural numbers ( i. e. positive integers ) that " expresses some arithmetical property of n ."
Although Zermelo's fix allows a class to describe arbitrary ( possibly " large ") entities, these predicates of the meta-language may have no formal existence ( i. e., as a set ) within the theory.
To clarify, when one says that the Lebesgue measure is an extension of the Borel measure, it means that every Borel measurable set E is also a Lebesgue measurable set, and the Borel measure and the Lebesgue measure coincide on the Borel sets ( i. e., for every Borel measurable set ).
Well-known communications protocols are Ethernet, a hardware and Link Layer standard that is ubiquitous in local area networks, and the Internet Protocol Suite, which defines a set of protocols for internetworking, i. e. for data communication between multiple networks, as well as host-to-host data transfer, and application-specific data transmission formats.
These categories surely have some objects that are " special " in a certain way, such as the empty set or the product of two topologies, yet in the definition of a category, objects are considered to be atomic, i. e., we do not know whether an object A is a set, a topology, or any other abstract concept – hence, the challenge is to define special objects without referring to the internal structure of those objects.
A formal grammar defines ( or generates ) a formal language, which is a ( usually infinite ) set of finite-length sequences of symbols ( i. e. strings ) that may be constructed by applying production rules to another sequence of symbols which initially contains just the start symbol.
The database of compounds used for parameterization, i. e., the resulting set of parameters and functions is called the force field, is crucial to the success of molecular mechanics calculations.
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Therefore, after combining like terms, the coefficient of x < sup > n − 2 </ sup > y < sup > 2 </ sup > will be equal to the number of ways to choose exactly 2 elements from an n-element set.
Unfortunately in the literature the definition is given in two variants: Despite the fact that Bernoulli defined B < sub > 1 </ sub > = 1 / 2 ( now known as " second Bernoulli numbers "), some authors set B < sub > 1 </ sub > = − 1 / 2 (" first Bernoulli numbers ").
The other three are < sup > 106 </ sup > Cd, < sup > 108 </ sup > Cd ( both double electron capture ), and < sup > 114 </ sup > Cd ( double beta decay ); only lower limits on their half-life times have been set.
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Let M be a smooth manifold and let x be a point in M. Let I < sub > x </ sub > be the ideal of all functions in C < sup >∞</ sup >( M ) vanishing at x, and let I < sub > x </ sub >< sup > 2 </ sup > be the set of functions of the form, where f < sub > i </ sub >, g < sub > i </ sub > ∈ I < sub > x </ sub >.
Indeed, following, suppose ƒ is a complex function defined in an open set Ω ⊂ C. Then, writing for every z ∈ Ω, one can also regard Ω as an open subset of R < sup > 2 </ sup >, and ƒ as a function of two real variables x and y, which maps Ω ⊂ R < sup > 2 </ sup > to C. We consider the Cauchy – Riemann equations at z = 0 assuming ƒ ( z ) = 0, just for notational simplicity – the proof is identical in general case.
If S is an arbitrary set, then the set S < sup > N </ sup > of all sequences in S becomes a complete metric space if we define the distance between the sequences ( x < sub > n </ sub >) and ( y < sub > n </ sub >) to be, where N is the smallest index for which x < sub > N </ sub > is distinct from y < sub > N </ sub >, or 0 if there is no such index.
Then the Cartesian product set D < sub > 1 </ sub > D < sub > 2 </ sub > can be made into a directed set by defining ( n < sub > 1 </ sub >, n < sub > 2 </ sub >) ≤ ( m < sub > 1 </ sub >, m < sub > 2 </ sub >) if and only if n < sub > 1 </ sub > ≤ m < sub > 1 </ sub > and n < sub > 2 </ sub > ≤ m < sub > 2 </ sub >.
* The set N N of pairs of natural numbers can be made into a directed set by defining ( n < sub > 0 </ sub >, n < sub > 1 </ sub >) ≤ ( m < sub > 0 </ sub >, m < sub > 1 </ sub >) if and only if n < sub > 0 </ sub > ≤ m < sub > 0 </ sub > and n < sub > 1 </ sub > ≤ m < sub > 1 </ sub >.
A formal language L over an alphabet Σ is a subset of Σ < sup >*</ sup >, that is, a set of words over that alphabet.
The composition of two automorphisms is again an automorphism, and with this operation the set of all automorphisms of a group < var > G </ var >, denoted by Aut (< var > G </ var >), forms itself a group, the automorphism group of < var > G </ var >.
* For each pair of objects x and y in G < sub > 0 </ sub >, there exists a ( possibly empty ) set G ( x, y ) of morphisms ( or arrows ) from x to y.
Conversely, given a groupoid G in the algebraic sense, let G < sub > 0 </ sub > be the set of all elements of the form x * x < sup >− 1 </ sup > with x varying through G and define G ( x * x < sup >-1 </ sup >, y * y < sup >-1 </ sup >) as the set of all elements f such that y * y < sup >-1 </ sup > * f * x * x < sup >-1 </ sup > exists.
If G = GL < sub >*</ sub >( K ), then the set of natural numbers is a proper subset of G < sub > 0 </ sub >, since for each natural number n, there is a corresponding identity matrix of dimension n. G ( m, n ) is empty unless m = n, in which case it is the set of all nxn invertible matrices.
If one identifies C with R < sup > 2 </ sup >, then the holomorphic functions coincide with those functions of two real variables with continuous first derivatives which solve the Cauchy-Riemann equations, a set of two partial differential equations.
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