Carbon and oxygen nuclei collide with interstellar matter to form lithium, beryllium and boron in a process termed cosmic ray spallation.

Spalling and spallation both describe the process of surface failure in which spall is shed.

These hit a heavy metal target such as lead, thorium or uranium and produce neutrons through the process of spallation.

In general, spallation is a process in which fragments of material ( spall ) are ejected from a body due to impact or stress.

In the context of anthropology, spallation is a process used to make stone tools such as arrowheads by knapping.

In nuclear physics, spallation is the process in which a heavy nucleus emits a large number of nucleons as a result of being hit by a high-energy particle, thus greatly reducing its atomic weight.

Lithium spallation is the process by which a high-energy neutron bombards a lithium atom, creating a < sup > 3 </ sup > He and a < sup > 4 </ sup > He ion.

The spallation process at SNS begins with negatively charged hydrogen ions that are produced by an ion source.

Cosmic ray spallation was investigated as a possible process to generate deuterium.

However, the new studies of spallation showed that this process could generate lithium, beryllium and boron, and indeed these isotopes are over-represented in cosmic ray nuclei, as compared with solar atmospheres ( whereas hydrogen and helium are present in about primordial ratios in cosmic rays ).

By convention, certain stable nuclides of lithium, beryllium, and boron thought to have been produced by cosmic ray spallation in the period of time between the Big Bang and the solar system's formation ( thus making these primordial nuclides, by definition ) are not termed " cosmogenic ," even though they are were formed by the same process as the cosmogenic nuclides ( although at an earlier time ).

is created from the neutron spallation of as a result of subsurface nuclear explosions.

The presence and ratios of these elements may help develop theories on the means of their production, especially when their proportions are inconsistent with those expected to arise from stars as a result of fusion and thereby suggest alternate means, such as cosmic ray spallation.

The neutrons that produce the reactions are mostly produced by secondary spallation reactions from alpha particles, in turn derived from uranium-series decay chains.

In addition, very high energy neutrons can cause ionizing radiation by " neutron spallation " or knockout, wherein neutrons cause emission of high-energy protons from atomic nuclei ( especially hydrogen nuclei ) on impact.

There are a wide variety of different sources, ranging from hand-held radioactive sources to neutron research facilities operating research reactors and spallation sources.

Beamlines usually end in experimental stations that utilize particle beams or synchrotron light obtained from a synchrotron, or neutrons from a spallation source or research reactor.

Superficially, neutron beamlines differ from synchrotron radiation beamlines mostly by the fact that they use neutrons from a research reactor or a spallation source instead of photons.

Artificial neutron flux refers to neutron flux which is man-made, either as byproducts from weapons or nuclear energy production or for specific application such as from a research reactor or by spallation.

There are concerns about the window separating the protons from the spallation target, which is expected to be exposed to stress under extreme conditions.

The composition of the cosmic rays themselves also indicates that they have suffered spallation before reaching Earth, because the proportion of light elements such as Li, B, and Be in them exceeds average cosmic abundances ; these elements in the cosmic rays were evidently formed from spallation of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon and perhaps silicon in the cosmic ray sources or during their lengthy travel here.

The rebound from the expelled matter can create very high pressures, and the pulse length of lasers is often quite short, meaning that good hardening can be achieved with little risk of spallation.

< sup > 35 </ sup > S is formed from cosmic ray spallation of < sup > 40 </ sup > Ar in the atmosphere.

< sup > 26 </ sup > Al is produced from argon in the atmosphere by spallation caused by cosmic-ray protons.

Most in the universe is thought to be formed by cosmic ray nucleosynthesis from cosmic ray spallation in the period between the Big Bang and the formation of the solar system.

The aerosol or spallation frangible powder produced during impact and combustion of depleted uranium munitions can potentially contaminate wide areas around the impact sites, leading to possible inhalation by human beings.

Radioactive cosmogenic < sup > 10 </ sup > Be is produced in the atmosphere of the Earth by the cosmic ray spallation of oxygen

Because boron is produced entirely by cosmic ray spallation and not by stellar nucleosynthesis, it is a low-abundance element in both the solar system and the Earth's crust.

The chemical elements are thought to have been produced by various cosmic processes, including hydrogen, helium ( and smaller amounts of lithium, beryllium and boron ) created during the Big Bang and cosmic-ray spallation.

On Earth, small amounts of new atoms are naturally produced in nucleogenic reactions, or in cosmogenic processes, such as cosmic ray spallation.

Two radioactive, cosmogenic isotopes are the byproduct of cosmic ray spallation: < sup > 22 </ sup > Na with a half-life of 2. 6 years and < sup > 24 </ sup > Na with a half-life of 15 hours ; all other isotopes have a half-life of less than one minute.

Other than < sup > 35 </ sup > S, with a half-life of 87 days and formed in cosmic ray spallation of < sup > 40 </ sup > Ar, the radioactive isotopes of sulfur have half-lives less than.

During the 1970s, attempts were made to use cosmic ray spallation to produce deuterium.

They are a strong source for cosmic ray spallation in the atmosphere of the Earth.

In space, cosmic ray spallation is also a significant source of specific nuclei (< sup > 9 </ sup > Be and < sup > 10, 11 </ sup > B ) that are not created by stellar nucleosynthesis.

Some high-energy cosmic rays entering Earth's atmosphere collide hard enough with molecular atmospheric constituents to cause occasionally nuclear spallation reactions.

Nuclear spallation occurs naturally in earth's atmosphere owing to the impacts of cosmic rays, and also on the surfaces of bodies in space such as meteorites and the moon.

Evidence of cosmic ray spallation ( also known as " spoliation ") is evidence that the material in question has been exposed on the surface of the body of which it is part, and gives a means of measuring the length of time of exposure.

Cosmogenic isotopes of aluminium, beryllium, chlorine, iodine and neon, formed by spallation of terrestrial elements under cosmic ray bombardment, have been detected on earth.

Helium-3 is created by cosmic ray bombardment, and by lithium spallation reactions which generally occur in the crust.

Cosmic rays cause spallation when a ray particle ( e. g. a proton ) impacts with matter, including other cosmic rays.