# A growing openness to experience – they move away from defensiveness and have no need for subception ( a perceptual defense that involves unconsciously applying strategies to prevent a troubling stimulus from entering consciousness ).

Coming from this phenomenological perspective on culturally mediated and socially situated action, Holzkamp launched a devastating and original methodological attack on behaviorism ( which he termed S – R ( stimulus – response ) psychology ) based on linguistic analysis, showing in minute detail the rhetorical patterns by which this approach to psychology creates the illusion of " scientific objectivity " while at the same time losing relevance for understanding culturally situated, intentional human actions.

The object of a stimulus – response model is to establish a mathematical function that describes the relation f between the stimulus x and the expected value ( or other measure of location ) of the response Y:

In 2009, the Turkish Government introduced various economic stimulus measures to reduce the impact of the 2007 – 2012 global financial crisis such as temporary tax cuts on automobiles, home appliances and housing.

" Responses of neurons to an amplitude modulated microwave stimulus ", Neurosci Lett 333: 175 – 78, 2002.

Saccades to an unexpected stimulus normally take about 200 milliseconds ( ms ) to initiate, and then last from about 20 – 200 ms, depending on their amplitude ( 20 – 30 ms is typical in language reading ).

This situation changed with the Orgeltagung ( Organ Meeting ) in Hamburg organised by Hans Henny Jahnn in 1925, which was a major stimulus for the Orgelbewegung ( Organ reform movement ), and the renewal of the front pipes of the Schnitger organ in the St. Jacobi Church by Karl Kemper from 1928 – 1930.

Using event-related potentials, Blanke and colleagues showed the selective activation of the TPJ 330 – 400 ms after stimulus onset when healthy volunteers imagined themselves in the position and visual perspective that generally are reported by people experiencing spontaneous OBEs.

* Fluency – The total number of interpretable, meaningful and relevant ideas generated in response to the stimulus.

Although such studies are set up primarily in an operant conditioning chamber, using food rewards for pecking / bar-pressing behavior, the researchers describe pecking and bar pressing not in terms of reinforcement and stimulus – response relationships, but instead in terms of work, demand, budget, and labor.

Lorenz demonstrated how incubator-hatched geese would imprint on the first suitable moving stimulus they saw within what he called a " critical period " between 13 – 16 hours shortly after hatching.

He is also credited with demonstrating the non-linear relationship between psychological sensation and the physical intensity of a stimulus via the formula: " S = K Log I ", which became known as the Weber – Fechner law.

The mainstream position is attacked from both sides – advocates of sound finance argue that deficit spending is always bad policy, while some Post-Keynesian economists, particularly Chartalists, argue that deficit spending is necessary, and not only for fiscal stimulus.

* Distractible speech – During mid speech, the subject is changed in response to a stimulus.

Ernst Heinrich Weber ( 1795 – 1878 ) was one of the first people to approach the study of the human response to a physical stimulus in a quantitative fashion.

* Murray Sidman – discovered Sidman Avoidance, highly cited author, researcher on punishment, also has been influential in research on stimulus equivalence.

Skinner's empirical work expanded on earlier research on trial-and-error learning by researchers such as Thorndike and Guthrie with both conceptual reformulations — Thorndike's notion of a stimulus – response " association " or " connection " was abandoned ; and methodological ones — the use of the " free operant ," so called because the animal was now permitted to respond at its own rate rather than in a series of trials determined by the experimenter procedures.

* Light – When the adequate stimulus of a sensory receptor is light, the sensory receptors contain pigment molecules whose shape is transformed by light.

* Sound – When the adequate stimulus of a sensory receptor is sound, the sensory receptors are hair cells ( mechanoreceptors ).

The exact nature of the stimulus or stimuli that triggers the seizures varies from one patient to another, as does the nature and severity of the resulting seizures ( ranging from brief absence seizures to full tonic – clonic seizures ).

A state of parasympathetic `` tuning '' of the hypothalamus induced experimentally causes not only an increase in the parsympathetic reactivity of this structure to direct and reflexly induced stimuli, but leads also to an autonomic reversal: a stimulus acting sympathetically under control conditions elicits in this state of tuning a parasympathetic response!!

Block diagram of an analytical instrument showing the stimulus and measurement of response

At the time, Skinner's behaviorist paradigm dominated psychology: Most psychologists focused on functional relations between stimulus and response, without positing internal representations.

The time between the presentation of a stimulus and an appropriate response can indicate differences between two cognitive processes, and can indicate some things about their nature.

“ This doctrine is rooted in Aristotle's conception of the soul, and has antecedents in Hobbes's conception of the mind as a ‘ calculating machine ’, but it has become fully articulated ( and popularly endorsed ) only in the last third of the 20th century .” In so far as it mediates stimulus and response, a mental function is analogous to a program that processes input / output in automata theory.

* Event-related potential, an electrophysiological response to an internal or external stimulus

Thorndike was one of the first to say that individual differences in cognitive tasks were due to how many stimulus response patterns a person had rather than a general intellectual ability.

It is a basic survival mechanism occurring in response to a specific stimulus, such as pain or the threat of danger.

Once response to the stimulus in the form of fear or aggression commences, the amygdala may elicit the release of hormones into the body to put the person into a state of alertness, in which they are ready to move, run, fight, etc.

These can then be quickly converted into their active hormone form in response to a particular stimulus.

The control center determines an appropriate response to the stimulus.

Importantly, individuals can also differ not only in their current state, but in the magnitude or even direction of response to a given stimulus.

In Dewey's article " The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology " which appeared in Psychological Review in 1896, he reasons against the traditional stimulus-response understanding of the reflex arc in favor of a " circular " account in which what serves as " stimulus " and what as " response " depends on how one considers the situation, and defends the unitary nature of the sensory motor circuit.

While he does not deny the existence of stimulus, sensation, and response, he disagreed that they were separate, juxtaposed events happening like links in a chain.

1 ) Classical conditioning, where the behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus as in the case of Pavlov's Dogs.

There are different types of receptor response to stimulus, slowly adapting or tonic receptors respond to steady stimulus and produce a steady rate of firing.

In an interview in 2000, Mikhail Gorbachev, in response to the comment " In the 1980s, you warned about the unprecedented dangers of nuclear weapons and took very daring steps to reverse the arms race ," said " Models made by Russian and American scientists showed that a nuclear war would result in a nuclear winter that would be extremely destructive to all life on Earth ; the knowledge of that was a great stimulus to us, to people of honor and morality, to act in that situation.

:# Exposure to the phobic stimulus almost invariably provokes an immediate anxiety response, which may take the form of a situationally bound or situationally predisposed panic attack.

Myers and Davis ( 2007 ) describe the acquisition of fear as when a conditioned stimulus ( e. g., a distinctive place ) is paired with an aversive unconditioned stimulus ( e. g. a electric shock ) to an end result in which the subject exhibits a conditioned feared response to the distinctive place ( CS + UCS = CR ).

Behaviourists such as John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner have proposed that perception acts largely as a process between a stimulus and a response but have noted that Gilbert Ryle's " ghost in the machine of the brain " still seems to exist.

In their model, an environmental stimulus can have a very great effect on IQ, even for adults, but this effect also decays over time unless the stimulus continues ( the model could be adapted to include possible factors, like nutrition during early childhood, that may cause permanent effects ).

Edelman called it " reentry " and proposes a model of reentrant signaling whereby a disjunctive, multimodal sampling of the same stimulus event correlated in time leads to self-organizing intelligence.

Hue is one of the main properties of a color, defined technically ( in the CIECAM02 model ), as " the degree to which a stimulus can be described

Events occur only at the instants dictated by the testbench HDL ( such as a reset-toggle coded into the testbench ), or in reaction ( by the model ) to stimulus and triggering events.

* The maximum conditioning possible for an unconditioned stimulus in the Rescorla-Wagner model.

The photographic model proposes that in order for a flashbulb account to occur in the presence of a stimulus event, there must be, a high level of surprise, consequentiality, and emotional arousal.

To explain this preference, SIT introduced a formal coding model starting from the assumption that the perceptually preferred interpretation of a stimulus is the one with the simplest code.

Niko Tinbergen, following his extensive analysis of the stimulus features that elicited food-begging in the chick of the Herring Gull, constructed an artificial stimulus consisting of a red knitting needle with three white bands painted round it ; this elicited a stronger response than an accurate three-dimensional model of the parent's head ( white ) and bill ( yellow with a red spot ).

The advent of the model provided a testable framework for subsequent work, and a strong stimulus for the experiemental study of human memory.

The Sokolov model assumes that when a stimulus is experienced several times the nervous system creates a model of the expected stimulus ( a stimulus model ).