Steve Jones ' book Almost like a Whale is a modern introduction to Charles Darwin's Origin of Species and closely follows its structure.

Darwin's speculations in his notebooks deepened as he wondered how instincts and mental traits were passed on to offspring, finding it " difficult to imagine as anything but structure of the brain ".

Huxley's interest in aggressively attacking the scientific establishment earned him the moniker " Darwin's bulldog " in a ferocious dispute with the leading anatomist Richard Owen as to whether the anatomy of brain structure was consistent with humans and apes having shared ancestry.

Naturalists respond that biology has been profoundly concerned with the ways function constrains structure since the time of Aristotle and that Darwin's own awareness of teleology is evident in his study in functional constraints on the evolutionary development of the beaks of Galapagos finches, of which he wrote, " Seeing this gradation and diversity of structure in one small, intimately related group of birds, one might really fancy that from an original paucity of birds in this archipelago, one species had been taken and modified for different ends.

In structure, Johnson points out the same central theme, that of cannibalism and the eating of babies as well as the same final argument, that " human depravity is such that men will attempt to justify their own cruelty by accusing their victims of being lower than human.

A good reference, analyzing the methodological structure of casuistic argument, is The Abuse of Casuistry: A History of Moral Reasoning ( 1990 ), by Albert Jonsen and Stephen Toulmin ( ISBN 0-520-06960-9 ).

Patients also showed improvements in verb argument structure productions and assigned thematic roles to words in utterances with more accuracy.

Each predicate has its argument structure with places for arguments, which may be variables.

Prefixes allow one to reorder the argument structure of predicates, to emphasize one of the variables by putting it first.

" The structure of a dissertation consists in an introduction that elucidates the basic definitions involved in the question as set, followed by an argument or thesis, a counter-argument or antithesis, and a resolving argument or synthesis that is not a compromise between the former but the production of a new argument, ending with a conclusion that does not sum up the points but opens onto a new problem.

The structure of a typical Italian sonnet of this time included two parts that together formed a compact form of " argument ".

Traditionally, semantics has included the study of sense and denotative reference, truth conditions, argument structure, thematic roles, discourse analysis, and the linkage of all of these to syntax.

This theory is an effort to explain properties of argument structure.

Formal fallacies occur when there is a problem with the form, or structure, of the argument.

An informal fallacy is an error in reasoning that occurs due to a problem with the content, rather than mere structure, of the argument.

The fixed words of this idiom ( in bold ) do not form a constituent in any theory's analysis of syntactic structure because the object of the preposition ( here this situation ) is not part of the idiom ( but rather it is an argument of the idiom ).

That way, an argument can be supported on whether or not action should be taken to alter the market structure or regulate market conduct.

In philosophy, the term logical fallacy properly refers to a formal fallacy: a flaw in the structure of a deductive argument which renders the argument invalid.

According to this argument, the research around Dunbar's Number implies a limit on the number of inbound and outbound connections a human in a group-forming network can manage, so that the actual maximum-value structure is much sparser than the set-of-subsets measured by Reed's law or the complete graph measured by Metcalfe's Law.

The French writer Georges Bataille in his book La part Maudite uses Mauss's argument in order to construct a theory of economy: to his point of view the structure of gift forms the presupposition for all possible economy.

( The tortoise is a reader who denies the argument itself, the syllogism's conclusion, structure or validity.

Much of Condillac's work reflected mainstream Physiocrats, particularly his analysis of the structure of taxation and proposals for the revival of the economy, but he also proposed another line of argument, claiming that producers work to obtain utility.

The error in the argument comes about because they are based on an incomplete specification of the structure of phase-space.

A generic function is an object which is callable like a function and which associates a collection of methods with a shared name and argument structure, each specialized for different arguments.

; declare the common argument structure prototype

The nuclei of these fibers, as is shown in Figures 3 and 4, showed remarkable proliferation and were closely approximated, forming a chainlike structure at either the center or the periphery of the fiber.

This new organisation showed promise of being a more efficient organisation of the railways but within a couple of years of its implementation the structure was fragmented by the privatisation process.

A recent study showed that there is a bivalent structure present in the chromatin: methylated lysine residues at location 4 and 27 on histone 3.

The answer to this question turned out to be negative: in 1952, Gleason, Montgomery and Zippin showed that if G is a topological manifold with continuous group operations, then there exists exactly one analytic structure on G which turns it into a Lie group ( see also Hilbert – Smith conjecture ).

His ground-breaking paper showed how to derive the electronic structure of the fluorine and oxygen molecules from quantum principles.

The free-electron debacle showed researchers that the model assuming that the ions were in a sea of free electrons needed modification, and so a number of quantum mechanical models such as band structure calculations based on molecular orbitals or the density functional theory were developed.

Crutzen and Birks showed that smoke injected into the atmosphere by fires in cities, forests and petroleum reserves could prevent up to 99 % of sunlight from reaching the Earth's surface, with major climatic consequences: " The normal dynamic and temperature structure of the atmosphere would therefore change considerably over a large fraction of the Northern Hemisphere, which will probably lead to important changes in land surface temperatures and wind systems.

With a new constitution and a new parliament representing diverse parties and factions, Russia's political structure subsequently showed signs of stabilization.

Since the mid-1990s, starspot observations have been made using increasingly powerful techniques yielding more and more detail: photometry showed starspot growth and decay and showed cyclic behavior similar to the Sun's ; spectroscopy examined the structure of starspot regions by analyzing variations in spectral line splitting due to the Zeeman Effect ; Doppler imaging showed differential rotation of spots for several stars and distributions different from the Sun's ; spectral line analysis measured the temperature range of spots and the stellar surfaces.

In two years of acrimonious public dispute that Charles Kingsley satirised as the " Great Hippocampus Question " and parodied in The Water-Babies as the " great hippopotamus test ", Huxley showed that Owen was incorrect in asserting that ape brains lacked a structure present in human brains.

The distribution of electrons in the table-salt structure showed that crystals are not necessarily composed of covalently bonded molecules, and proved the existence of ionic compounds.

Kathleen Lonsdale's 1928 structure of hexamethylbenzene established the hexagonal symmetry of benzene and showed a clear difference in bond length between the aliphatic C – C bonds and aromatic C – C bonds ; this finding led to the idea of resonance between chemical bonds, which had profound consequences for the development of chemistry.

Until the early 20th century, the chief ancient buildings at Sparta were the theatre, of which, however, little showed above ground except portions of the retaining walls ; the so-called Tomb of Leonidas, a quadrangular building, perhaps a temple, constructed of immense blocks of stone and containing two chambers ; the foundation of an ancient bridge over the Eurotas ; the ruins of a circular structure ; some remains of late Roman fortifications ; several brick buildings and mosaic pavements.

In that work, Gibbs showed that those processes could be accounted for by Maxwell's equations without any special assumptions about the microscopic structure of matter or about the nature of the medium in which electromagnetic waves were supposed to propagate ( the so-called luminiferous aether ).

The 8. 4 μ and 10. 4 μ showed equal radiation temperatures, indicating the limb darkening effect would appear to come from a cloud structure rather than the atmosphere.

He showed that the figure eight knot complement could be decomposed as the union of two regular ideal hyperbolic tetrahedra whose hyperbolic structures matched up correctly and gave the hyperbolic structure on the figure eight knot complement.

Further work on the structure of the LMC using the kinematics of carbon stars showed that the LMC's disk is both thick and flared.

The spectra showed vibrational transitions with rotational fine structure.

Pinker ’ s research on visual cognition, begun in collaboration with his thesis adviser Stephen Kosslyn, showed that mental images represent scenes and objects as they appear from a specific vantage point ( rather than capturing their intrinsic three-dimensional structure ), and thus correspond to the neuroscientist David Marr ’ s theory of a “ two-and-a-half-dimensional sketch .” He also showed that this level of representation is used in visual attention, and in object recognition ( at least for asymmetrical shapes ), contrary to Marr ’ s theory that recognition uses viewpoint-independent representations.

However, a newer study compared incidence rates of skull lesions and periosteal reaction in Triceratops and Centrosaurus and showed that these were consistent with Triceratops using its horns in combat and the frill being adapted as a protective structure, while lower pathology rates in Centrosaurus may indicate visual rather than physical use of cranial ornamentation, or a form of combat focused on the body rather than the head.