For instance, the vertebrate eye's retina that is installed backward, facing the back of the head rather than the front.

The vertebrate retina (, pl.

In vertebrate embryonic development, the retina and the optic nerve originate as outgrowths of the developing brain, so the retina is considered part of the central nervous system ( CNS ) and is actually brain tissue.

The vertebrate retina has ten distinct layers.

Additional structures, not directly associated with vision, are found as outgrowths of the retina in some vertebrate groups.

The cephalopod retina does not originate as an outgrowth of the brain, as the vertebrate one does.

Webvision: The neural organization of the vertebrate retina.

* Neuroglobin: a myoglobin-like haemprotein expressed in vertebrate brain and retina, where it is involved in neuroprotection from damage due to hypoxia or ischemia.

Transducin ( G < sub > t </ sub >) is a heterotrimeric G protein with three polypeptide chains characterized into two subunits: α, β and γ. Transducin is naturally expressed in vertebrate retina rods and cones, with different α subunits in rod and cone photoreceptors.

Bacteriorhodopsin belongs to a family of bacterial proteins related to vertebrate rhodopsins, the pigments that sense light in the retina.

Dr. Randolph Nesse, in his book: Why We Get sick explains that the " blind spot " in the vertebrate eye caused by the nerve fibers running in front of the retina and blocking vision in parts.

Another specialisation of visual system in many vertebrate animals is the development of a small area of the retina with a very high visual acuity.

The bacteriorhodopsin protein is chemically very similar to the light-detecting pigment rhodopsin, found in the vertebrate retina.

The smallest vertebrate in the world is the New Guinea frog, Paedophryne amauensis.

The superclass Tetrapoda is divided into four classes of vertebrate animals with four limbs.

The latter is the smallest known vertebrate.

Lizards and some frogs have somewhat similar osteoderms forming bony deposits in the dermis but this is an example of convergent evolution with similar structures having arisen independently in diverse vertebrate lineages.

The fauna of the Horseshoe Canyon Formation is well-known, as vertebrate fossils, including those of dinosaurs, are quite common.

The brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals — only a few invertebrates such as sponges, jellyfish, adult sea squirts and starfish do not have one, even if diffuse neural tissue is present.

The brain of a vertebrate is the most complex organ of its body.

Here is a list of some of the most important vertebrate brain components, along with a brief description of their functions as currently understood:

It is a popular aquarium fish, frequently sold under the trade name zebra danio, and is an important vertebrate model organism in scientific research.

D. rerio is a common and useful model organism for studies of vertebrate development and gene function.

As a result, vertebrate classification is in a state of flux.

* the Cerebral cortex ( usually just cortex ), the outer layer of the vertebrate cerebrum, part of which is the forebrain

Myelin is considered a defining characteristic of the ( gnathostome ) vertebrates, but myelin-like sheaths have also arisen by parallel evolution in some invertebrates, although they are quite different from vertebrate myelin at the molecular level.

The ovary is an ovum-producing reproductive organ, often found in pairs as part of the vertebrate female reproductive system.

It is the Earth's most severe known extinction event, with up to 96 % of all marine species and 70 % of terrestrial vertebrate species becoming extinct.

By the 21st century, vertebrate paleontologists were beginning to adopt phylogenetic taxonomy, in which all groups are defined in such a way as to be monophyletic ; that is, groups include all descendants of a particular ancestor.

No earlier evidence of human occupation has been found, but the island almost certainly formed part of the land bridge used for the settlement of Australia and New Guinea by at least 40, 000 BC There is no evidence of Homo erectus having reached Sulawesi ; crude stone tools first discovered in 1947 on the right bank of the Walennae river at Berru, which were thought to date to the Pleistocene on the basis of their association with vertebrate fossils, are now thought to date to perhaps 50, 000 BC

The thyroid gland or simply, the thyroid, in vertebrate anatomy, is one of the largest endocrine glands.

For example, the backbone is a common structure among all vertebrates such as fish, reptiles, and mammals, and the backbone also appears as one of the earliest structures laid out in all vertebrate embryos.

The vertebrate heart is principally composed of cardiac muscle and connective tissue.

For this reason, the vertebrate subphylum is sometimes referred to as " Craniata " when discussing morphology.

The defining characteristic of a vertebrate is the vertebral column, in which the notochord ( a stiff rod of uniform composition ) found in all chordates has been replaced by a segmented series of stiffer elements ( vertebrae ) separated by mobile joints ( intervertebral discs, derived embryonically and evolutionarily from the notochord ).

As with vertebrate directional terms, superior and inferior can be used in a relative sense in humans, but can not be uniformly applied to other organisms with varying normal anatomical positions.

Although the ear is the vertebrate sense organ that recognizes sound, it is the brain and central nervous system that " hears ".

Structure and function of the vertebrate magnetic sense.

For example, in the vertebrate visual system, calcium dynamics in the retinal photoreceptors adjust gain to suit light levels.

When a vertebrate, like a human, enters a dark area, its iris dilates, allowing more light to enter the eye and improving night vision.

The most abundant cells in vertebrate blood are red blood cells.

Certain kinds of organisms require particular additional elements, for example the magnesium in chlorophyll in green plants, the calcium in mollusc shells, or the iron in the hemoglobin in vertebrate animals ' red blood cells.

Some eukaryotic cells of higher vertebrate origin, such as immune cells also move to where they need to be.

* Clone ( cell biology )— In cell biology, a group of identical cells naturally derived from a common parent cell ; of significance in vertebrate physiology and concepts related to immunology and cancer biology

In vertebrate cells, " slippage " through the mitotic checkpoint leading to premature M phase exit can occur despite the delay of this exit by the spindle checkpoint.

In vertebrate animal cells nearly all > 100, 000 DNA transposons per genome have genes that encode inactive transposase polypeptides.

Leishmania cells have two morphological forms: promastigote ( with an anterior flagellum ) in the insect host, and amastigote ( without flagella ) in the vertebrate host.

Red blood cells, or erythrocytes, are the most common type of blood cell and the vertebrate organism's principal means of delivering oxygen ( O < sub > 2 </ sub >) to the body tissues via the blood flow through the circulatory system.

Myoglobin is found in vertebrate muscle cells.

During vertebrate embryonic development, chromatophores are one of a number of cell types generated in the neural crest, a paired strip of cells arising at the margins of the neural tube.

It contains hemocyanin, a copper-based protein that turns blue in color when oxygenated, instead of the iron-based hemoglobin in red blood cells found in vertebrates, thus giving hemolymph a blue-green color rather than the red color of vertebrate blood.

Indeed, it has also been shown that laser ablation of centrosomes in vertebrate cells inhibits neither spindle assembly nor chromosome segregation.

In biology, caveolae ( Latin for little caves, singular: caveola ), which are a special type of lipid raft, are small ( 50 – 100 nanometer ) invaginations of the plasma membrane in many vertebrate cell types, especially in endothelial cells and adipocytes.

The role NK cells play is analogous to that of cytotoxic T cells in the vertebrate adaptive immune response.

Much of the work on long-lasting synaptic changes between vertebrate neurons ( such as long-term potentiation ) involves the use of non-physiological experimental stimulation of brain cells.

A number of yellowish " chloragogen cells " surround the intestine and the dorsal blood vessel, forming a tissue that functions in a similar fashion to the vertebrate liver.

Firstly, it allows the recognition of target vertebrate cells, accomplished through the binding of these cells ' sialic acid-containing receptors.

* Neural crest cells, cells in the neural crest of a developing vertebrate embryo

Selective cell – cell adhesion enables vertebrate cells to assemble into organised tissues.