Group I and group II introns are found in genes encoding proteins ( messenger RNA ), transfer RNA and ribosomal RNA in a very wide range of living organisms., Following transcription into RNA, group I and group II introns also make extensive internal interactions that allow them to fold into a specific, complex three-dimensional architecture.

To make the encoding smaller and easier to read the underscore is used to represent the ASCII code for space creating the side effect that underscore cannot be represented directly.

Of the 16 bits that make up these two bytes, 11 bits go to encoding the distance, 3 go to encoding the length, and the remaining two are used to make sure the decoder can identify the first byte as the beginning of such a two-byte sequence.

It does not make it faster to find a particular offset in the string, as an " offset " can be measured in the fixed-size code units of any encoding.

This indirect encoding is believed to make the genetic search more robust ( i. e. reduce the probability of fatal mutations ), and also may improve the evolvability of the organism.

The earliest instances of this type of encoding were created for dialup communication between systems running the same OS — e. g. uuencode for UNIX, BinHex for the TRS-80 ( later adapted for the Macintosh ) — and could therefore make more assumptions about what characters were safe to use.

Graphic images may make an individual associate more with the horror and scale of a tragic event and hence produce a more elaborate encoding mechanism.

As the Laser disc format is not digitally encoded and does not make use of compression techniques, it is immune to video macroblocking ( most visible as blockiness during high motion sequences ) or contrast banding ( subtle visible lines in gradient areas, such as out-of-focus backgrounds, skies, or light casts from spotlights ) that can be caused by the MPEG-2 encoding process as video is prepared for DVD.

A study conducted at the Erik-Thienhaus Institute in Detmold, Germany, seems to contradict this, concluding that " hardly any of the subjects could make a reproducible distinction between the two encoding systems.

The second, channel encoding, adds extra data bits to make the transmission of data more robust to disturbances present on the transmission channel.

* Both methods make use of two-part codes: the first part always represents the information that one is trying to learn, such as the index of a model class ( model selection ), or parameter values ( parameter estimation ); the second part is an encoding of the data given the information in the first part.

Until 8BITMIME, a variety of binary-to-text encoding techniques have been overlaid on top of such systems to restore transparency – to make sure that any possible file can be transferred so that the final output " user data " is actually identical to the original user data.

Modulation techniques make use of the fact that technical noise usually decreases with increasing frequency ( which is why it is often referred to as 1 / f noise ) and improve the signal to noise ratio by encoding and detecting the absorption signal at a high frequency, where the noise level is low.

Most strong ciphers have the desirable property of making the payload appear indistinguishable from uniformly-distributed noise, which can make detection efforts more difficult, and save the steganographic encoding technique the trouble of having to distribute the signal energy evenly ( but see above concerning errors emulating the native noise of the carrier ).

*, attempt to make use of delta encoding, followed by re-encoding of compressed sections using 7-Zip deflate method.

In this case the encoder would make an exception and send a raw encoding for that specific block.

In order to avoid a growing propagation error, B-frames are not used as a reference to make further predictions in most encoding standards.

The purpose of the encoding is to make it easier for the receiver to recover the signal.

In telecommunication, bipolar encoding is a type of line code ( a method of encoding digital information to make it resistant to certain forms of signal loss during transmission ).

In the early 1970s, this gave rise to ideas to return to simpler processor designs in order to make it more feasible to cope without ( then relatively large and expensive ) ROM tables and / or PLA structures for sequencing and / or decoding.

If the message is an ISDN level message, then a decoding of the message is attempted showing the various Information Elements that make up the message.

This is distinguishable from the written form in which the author must gauge the readers ' likely reactions when they are decoding the text and make a final choice of words in the hope of achieving the desired response.

The loss of targa timing for example meant that organisers were forced to make the navigation much more difficult, and by eliminating preplot ( decoding and plotting all route information prior to the start ) in favour of so-called " plot ' n ' bash " navigation, shifted the focus of the competition onto the navigation.

However, with their lower cost comes additional tweaking in order to make them work properly, and they often don't provide the decoding capabilities at low Signal / Noise ratios.

To make a Turing machine that speaks Chinese, Searle gets in a room stocked with algorithms programmed to respond to Chinese questions, i. e., Turing machines, programmed to correctly answer in Chinese questions asked in Chinese, and he finds he's able to process the inputs to outputs perfectly without having any understanding of Chinese, nor having any idea what the questions and answers could possibly mean.

Beyond the initial increase in distortion, lower bit rate codecs also achieve their lower bit rates by using more complex algorithms that make certain assumptions, such as those about the media and the packet loss rate.

When they are both large, for instance more than 2000 bits long, randomly chosen, and about the same size ( but not too close, e. g. to avoid efficient factorization by Fermat's factorization method ), even the fastest prime factorization algorithms on the fastest computers can take enough time to make the search impractical ; that is, as the number of digits of the primes being factored increases, the number of operations required to perform the factorization on any computer increases drastically.

The " trick " that allows lossless compression algorithms, used on the type of data they were designed for, to consistently compress such files to a shorter form is that the files the algorithms are designed to act on all have some form of easily modeled redundancy that the algorithm is designed to remove, and thus belong to the subset of files that that algorithm can make shorter, whereas other files would not get compressed or even get bigger.

* Automatic learning procedures can make use of statistical inference algorithms to produce models that are robust to unfamiliar input ( e. g. containing words or structures that have not been seen before ) and to erroneous input ( e. g. with misspelled words or words accidentally omitted ).

Because it does not know the whole input, an online algorithm is forced to make decisions that may later turn out not to be optimal, and the study of online algorithms has focused on the quality of decision-making that is possible in this setting.

Sometimes k is presented as a constant, which would make radix sort better ( for sufficiently large n ) than the best comparison-based sorting algorithms, which are all O ( n · log ( n )).

Although this would generate unacceptable distortion in a music signal, the peaky nature of speech waveforms, combined with the simple frequency structure of speech as a periodic waveform having a single fundamental frequency with occasional added noise bursts, make these very simple instantaneous compression algorithms acceptable for speech.

Linus's law, that many eyes make all bugs shallow, also suggests improved security for algorithms and protocols whose details are published.

Determining what average input means is difficult, and often that average input has properties which make it difficult to characterise mathematically ( consider, for instance, algorithms that are designed to operate on strings of text ).

Operating-system support for NUMA attempts to reduce the frequency of this kind of access by allocating processors and memory in NUMA-friendly ways and by avoiding scheduling and locking algorithms that make NUMA-unfriendly accesses necessary.

For computer screens, where each individual pixel can mean the difference between legible and illegible characters, some digital fonts use hinting algorithms to make readable bitmaps at small sizes.

an agent that has better algorithms and heuristics could make " more rational " ( more optimal ) decisions than one that has poorer heuristics and algorithms.

He and Chase Cotton created and refined the algorithms ( called the Extended Bridge Algorithms for Large Networks ) necessary to make the system feasible.

Table lookups can make many algorithms more efficient, particularly when used to bypass computations with a high time complexity.

Digital models also carry some benefits over their analog counterparts, such as the ability to remove noise from the algorithms and add modifications to make the parameters more flexible.

# Development of computer algorithms and software ( applied AI science ) that make this theoretical knowledge available to the user.

Evolutionary algorithms often perform well approximating solutions to all types of problems because they ideally do not make any assumption about the underlying fitness landscape ; this generality is shown by successes in fields as diverse as engineering, art, biology, economics, marketing, genetics, operations research, robotics, social sciences, physics, politics and chemistry.

Divide-and-conquer algorithms naturally tend to make efficient use of memory caches.

In recursive implementations of D & C algorithms, one must make sure that there is sufficient memory allocated for the recursion stack, otherwise the execution may fail because of stack overflow.

Complex task prioritization and resource leveling algorithms for example can produce results that make no intuitive sense, and overallocation is often more simply resolved manually.

Polymorphic algorithms make it difficult for such software to recognise the offending code because it constantly mutates.

A major focus of machine learning research is the design of algorithms that recognize complex patterns and make intelligent decisions based on input data.