The core ideas of the Big Bang — the expansion, the early hot state, the formation of helium, and the formation of galaxies — are derived from many observations that are independent from any cosmological model ; these include the abundance of light elements, the cosmic microwave background, large scale structure, and the Hubble diagram for Type Ia supernovae.

Based on measurements of the expansion using Type Ia supernovae, measurements of temperature fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background, and measurements of the correlation function of galaxies, the Universe has a calculated age of 13. 75 ± 0. 11 billion years.

Independent lines of evidence from Type Ia supernovae and the CMB imply that the Universe today is dominated by a mysterious form of energy known as dark energy, which apparently permeates all of space.

Type Ia supernovae derive their energy from runaway fusion of the nuclei in the interior of a white dwarf.

A strong indication of the reliability of Chandrasekhar's formula is that the absolute magnitudes of supernovae of Type Ia are all approximately the same ; at maximum luminosity, M < sub > V </ sub > is approximately-19. 3, with a standard deviation of no more than 0. 3 .< sup >, ( 1 )</ sup > A 1-sigma interval therefore represents a factor of less than 2 in luminosity.

The rate of this spatial expansion is accelerating, based on studies of Type Ia supernovae and corroborated by other data.

Observations announced in 1998 of distance – redshift relation for Type Ia supernovae indicated that the expansion of the universe is accelerating.

* 1998 — The Supernova Cosmology Project and High-Z Supernova Search Team discover cosmic acceleration based on distances to Type Ia supernovae, providing the first compelling evidence for a non-zero cosmological constant.

During the 1980s and 1990s Berkeley Lab physicists and astronomers formed the Supernova Cosmology Project ( SCP ), using Type Ia supernovae as “ standard candles ” to measure the expansion rate of the universe.

In the so-called Type Ia supernovae, gases falling onto a white dwarf raise its mass until it nears a critical level, the Chandrasekhar limit, resulting in an explosion ; in Type Ib / c and Type II supernovae, the progenitor star is a massive star which runs out of fuel to power its nuclear fusion reactions and collapses in on itself, reaching such phenomenal temperatures that it explodes.

The presence of a pulsar in the Crab means that it must have formed in a core-collapse supernova ; Type Ia supernovae do not produce pulsars.

Large stars such as Saiph ( and many other stars in Orion ) are destined to collapse on themselves and explode as Type II supernovae.

They are synthesized by alpha-capture in the silicon fusing precursor state to Type II supernovae.

It is produced in Type II supernovae and its enhancement is well correlated with an enhancement of other alpha process elements.

Type II supernovae mainly synthesize oxygen and the alpha-elements ( Ne, Mg, Si, S, Ar, Ca and Ti ) while

Type Ia supernovae produce elements of the iron peak ( V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co and Ni ).

Most of these stars are believed finally to progress to become supernovae of Type Ib or Type Ic.

The calcium in some presolar grains is composed primarily of Ca-44, which is presumably the remains of the extinct radionuclide Ti-44, a titanium isotope composed of equal numbers ( 22 each ) of neutrons and protons which is formed in abundance in Type IIa supernovae after rapid capture of eight alpha particles to Si-28, after the process of silicon burning normally begins, prior to supernova explosion.

obvious to the casual observer, Type II error rates are low ).

Although the Bizerte ( Type PR 48 large patrol craft ) class L ' Audacieux is fitted for SS 12M missiles these are not embarked and its operational status is in some doubt, having not been reported at sea since 1995.

; The Common Type System ( CTS ): A set of data types and operations that are shared by all CTS-compliant programming languages.

Type I genomes are characterized by a small circular DNA genome ( approximately 2-kb ), with the Rep protein and the major open reading frame ( ORF ) in opposite orientations.

The main three are Type I, removal of the clitoral hood, almost invariably accompanied by removal of the clitoris itself ( clitoridectomy ); Type II, removal of the clitoris and inner labia ; and Type III ( infibulation ), removal of all or part of the inner and outer labia, and usually the clitoris, and the fusion of the wound, leaving a small hole for the passage of urine and menstrual blood — the fused wound is opened for intercourse and childbirth.

Several miscellaneous acts are categorized as Type IV.

A variety of other procedures are collectively known as Type IV, which the WHO defines as " all other harmful procedures to the female genitalia for non-medical purposes, for example, pricking, piercing, incising, scraping and cauterization.

Godzilla then proceeds to the coast, where the waiting army, equipped with tanks, rocket launchers and soldiers armed with Howa Type 64 assault rifles, proceeds to fire on Godzilla, but they are quickly subdued.

Type glyphs ( characters ) are created and modified using a variety of illustration techniques.

Some researchers believe that there are actually two types of gambler's fallacy: Type I and Type II.

Type II gambler's fallacy, as defined by Gideon Keren and Charles Lewis, occurs when a gambler underestimates how many observations are needed to detect a favorable outcome ( such as watching a roulette wheel for a length of time and then betting on the numbers that appear most often ).

The two types are different in that Type I wrongly assumes that gambling conditions are fair and perfect, while Type II assumes that the conditions are biased, and that this bias can be detected after a certain amount of time.

The People's Republic of China and India are both working on near term deployable SLBM systems ; although from 1986, China had deployed a system from the Type 092 submarine.

They are typically divided among three IFN classes: Type I IFN, Type II IFN, and Type III IFN.

* Armitage in the movie Armitage III is a " Third Type " cyborg which was an all female line of cyborgs designed to have conscience, free will and the ability to procreate as a way for a Mars-colony to better sustain a population and thus be able break away from Earth.

Around 85 percent of women experience Types I and II, and 15 percent Type III, though Martha Nussbaum writes that Type III nevertheless accounts for 80 – 90 percent of all such procedures in countries such as Sudan, Somalia, and Dijbouti.

Type III, commonly called infibulation or pharaonic circumcision, is the removal of all external genitalia.

In those settings all types of FGM were found to pose an increased risk of death to the baby: 15 percent higher for Type I, 32 percent for Type II, and 55 percent for Type III.

Type 3 fonts allowed for all the sophistication of the PostScript language, but without the standardized approach to hinting.

A variant of the Type 911, one of the most famous and successful sports cars of all time, the Type 912 initially outsold the 911, boosting the manufacturer's total production until success of the 911 was assured.

* By their response to a magnetic field: they can be Type I, meaning they have a single critical field, above which all superconductivity is lost ; or they can be Type II, meaning they have two critical fields, between which they allow partial penetration of the magnetic field.

Most pure elemental superconductors, except niobium, technetium, vanadium and carbon nanotubes, are Type I, while almost all impure and compound superconductors are Type II.

The first metallic-cartridge bolt actions in general military service were the Berdan Type II introduced by Russia in 1870, the Mauser Model 1871, and a modified Chassepot, the Gras rifle of 1874 ; all these were single-shots.

There were originally 305 registered Type 40s, but all the others had been decommissioned and replaced by new, improved models.

In contrast, printer fonts for the popular Apple LaserWriter were based on PostScript Type 1 outlines, resulting in excellent output at all printer sizes, but failing on the 72 dot per inch Mac screens.

Certain new features are common across all editions of Windows 2000, among them NTFS 3. 0, the Microsoft Management Console ( MMC ), UDF support, the Encrypting File System ( EFS ), Logical Disk Manager, Image Color Management 2. 0, support for PostScript 3-based printers, OpenType < tt >(. OTF )</ tt > and Type 1 PostScript < tt >(. PFB )</ tt > font support, the Data protection API ( DPAPI ), an LDAP / Active Directory-enabled Address Book, usability enhancements and multi-language and locale support.