The addition of the leap month ( Adar II ) is determined by observing in Israel the ripening of barley at a specific stage ( defined by Karaite tradition ) ( called aviv ), rather than using the calculated and fixed calendar of Rabbinic Judaism.

In August 1844 at a camp-meeting in Exeter, New Hampshire, everything changed when Samuel S. Snow presented a message of earth-shattering proportions — what became known as the “ seventh-month ” message or the “ true midnight cry .” In a complex discussion based on scriptural typology, Snow presented his conclusion ( still based on the 2300 day prophecy in ), that Christ would return on, “ the tenth day of the seventh month of the present year, 1844 .” Again using the calendar of the Karaite Jews, this date was determined to be October 22, 1844.

The non-literary materials, which include court documents, legal writings, and the correspondence of the local Jewish community ( such the Letter of the Karaite elders of Ascalon ), are somewhat smaller, but still impressive: Goitein estimated their size at " about 10, 000 items of some length, of which 7, 000 are self-contained units large enough to be regarded as documents of historical value.

According to Rabbi Avraham ben David, in his Sefer HaQabbalah, the Karaite movement crystallized in Baghdad in the Gaonic period ( circa 7th – 9th centuries CE ), under the Abbasid Caliphate in what is present-day Iraq.

The most well-known Karaite polemic is Yiṣḥaq ben Avraham of Troki's Ḥizzuq Emunah ( חזוק אמונה ) ( Faith Strengthened ), a comprehensive Counter-Missionary polemic, which was later translated into Latin by Wagenseil as part of a larger collection of Jewish anti-Christian polemics entitled Tela Ignea Satanæ, sive Arcani et Horribiles Judæorum Adversus Christum, Deum, et Christianam Religionem Libri ( Altdorf, 1681 ) ( translation: ' The Fiery Darts of Satan, or the Arcane and Horrible Books of the Jews Against Christ, God, and the Christian Religion ').

* Kizilov, Mikhail, " Faithful Unto Death: Language, Tradition, and the Disappearance of the East European Karaite Communities ," East European Jewish Affairs, 36: 1 ( 2006 ), 73 – 93.

* Daniel J. Lasker, From Judah Hadassi to Elijah Bashyatchi: Studies in Late Medieval Karaite Philosophy ( Leiden, Brill, 2008 ) ( Supplements to The Journal of Jewish Thought and Philosophy, 4 ), xvi, 296 pp.

Some scholars say that Karaites in Crimea are descendants of Karaite merchants who migrated to Crimea from the Byzantine Empire ( Schur 1995 ), presumably adopting a Turkic language upon their arrival in Crimea.

* The explicit statements found in books of grammar near the 10th and 11th Centuries C. E., such as: The Sefer haQoloth of Moshe ben Asher ( published by N. Allony ), Diqduqé hata ' amim of Aaron ben Moses ben Asher ; the anonymous works entitled Horayath haQoré ( G. Khan and Ilan Eldar attribute it to the Karaite Abu Alfaraj Harun ), the Treatise on the Schwa ( published by Kurt Levy from a Genizah fragment in 1936 ), and Ma ' amar haschewa ( published from Genizah material by Allony ); the works of medieval Sephardi grammarians, such as Abraham Ibn Ezra, Judah ben David Hayyuj.

Mainstream Rabbinic Judaism contrasts with Karaite Judaism ( Hebrew: יהדות קראית ), which does not recognize the oral law as a divine authority nor the Rabbinic procedures used to interpret Jewish scripture.

Gordon is considered a Hakham, a religious leader of the Karaite Jewish communities, and until recently served on Universal Karaite Judaism's " Religious Council " ( which represents Israeli Karaites ), and on the Board of Directors of the ancient Karaite synagogue in Jerusalem.

Many Karaite religious leaders preferred to be called by the title of Hakham ( wise man ), rather than " Rabbi ", however, they are included together on this page.

Karaite Jews build their Sukkot out of branches from the four specified plants ( see Other interpretations ), while Talmudic Jews take three types of branches and one type of fruit which are held together and waved in a special ceremony during the Jewish holiday of Sukkot.

Under the Tulunids ( 863-905 ), the Karaite community enjoyed robust growth.

A Karaite doctor, Abu al-Bayyan al-Mudawwar ( d. 1184 ), who had been physician to the last Fatimid, treated Saladin also.

The New Perspective scholars propose that the 1st century, Second Temple Judaism understood election primarily as national ( Israelites ) and racial ( Jews ), not as individual.

* Alexius ( c. 1425-1488 ), Russian archpriest who converted to Judaism

The Samaritans of Samaria ( see map at Iudaea Province ), had their temple on Mount Gerizim, and along with some other differences, see Samaritanism, were in conflict with Jews of Judea and Galilee and other regions who had their Temple in Jerusalem and practiced Judaism.

He served on the faculty of Hebrew Union College ( HUC ), the main seminary of Reform Judaism, in Cincinnati for five years.

In 1946, he took a position at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America ( JTS ), the main seminary of Conservative Judaism, where he served as professor of Jewish ethics and Mysticism until his death in 1972.

* Conservative Judaism: Our Ancestors To Our Descendants ( Revised Edition ), Elliot N. Dorff, United Synagogue New York, 1996

Judaism places emphasis on the right conduct ( or orthopraxy ), focusing on the Mosaic Covenant that the God of Israel, made with the Israelites, as recorded in the Torah and Talmud.

For example, while in a conversion to Judaism a convert must accept basic Jewish principles of faith, and renounce all other religions, the process is more like a form of adoption, or changing national citizenship ( i. e. becoming a formal member of the people, or tribe ), with the convert becoming a " child of Abraham and Sarah.

Although Judaism provides Jews with a word to label God's transcendence ( Ein Sof, without end ) and immanence ( Shekhinah, in-dwelling ), these are merely human words to describe two ways of experiencing God ; God is one and indivisible.

The quintessential physical expression of Judaism is behaving in accordance with the 613 Mitzvot ( the commandments specified in the Torah ), and thus live one's life in God's ways.

Thus fundamentally in Judaism, one is enjoined to bring holiness into life ( with the guidance of God's laws ), rather than removing oneself from life to be holy.

Judaism does not believe in the Christian concept of hell but does have a punishment stage in the afterlife ( i. e. Gehenna, the New Testament word translated as hell ) as well as a Heaven ( Gan Eden ), but the religion does not intend it as a focus.

It is commonly said that Judaism officially excluded the deuterocanonicals and the additional Greek texts listed here from their Scripture in the Council of Jamnia ( c. 70-90 AD ), but this claim is also disputed.

First, Paul was a Hellenistic Jew with a Pharisaic background ( see Gamaliel ), integral to his identity, see Paul of Tarsus and Judaism for details.

Consequent discussions of Christian Gnosticism included pre-Christian religious beliefs and spiritual practices argued to be common to early Christianity, Hellenistic Judaism, Greco-Roman mystery religions, Zoroastrianism ( especially Zurvanism ), and Neoplatonism.

While much of the attempt at gender equity in mainstream Christianity ( Judaism never recognized any gender for God ) is aimed at reinterpreting scripture and degenderizing language used to name and describe the divine ( Ruether, 1984 ; Plaskow, 1991 ), there are a growing number of people who identify as Christians or Jews who are trying to integrate goddess imagery into their religions ( Kien, 2000 ; Kidd 1996 ," Goddess Christians Yahoogroup ").

Jews consider it to contain the Foundation Stone ( see also Holy of Holies ), which is the holiest site in Judaism.

In Hebron, Baibars banned Jews from worshiping at the Cave of the Patriarchs ( the second holiest site in Judaism ), the ban remained in place until its conquest by Israel 700 years later.

Orthodox Judaism holds that Halakha is the divine law as laid out in the Torah ( First five books of Moses ), rabbinical laws, rabbinical decrees and customs combined.

* Avery-Peck, Alan, and Neusner, Jacob, ( eds ), " The Blackwell Companion to Judaism ( Blackwell, 2003 )

The largest Jewish religious movements are Orthodox Judaism ( Haredi Judaism and Modern Orthodox Judaism ), Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism.

Astoria ( 1835 ), written while Irving was Astor's guest, cemented the importance of the region in the American psyche .< ref > In his Introduction to the rambling work, Irving reports that Astor explicitly " expressed a regret that the true nature and extent of his enterprize

), Art as Culture: An Introduction to the Anthropology of Art.

Edited, with an Introduction and Annotations, by Reiner Smolinski ( Grand Rapids and Tuebingen: Baker Academic and Mohr Siebeck, 2010 ), ISBN 978-0-8010-3900-3

North American efforts include the 1993 founding of RadPsyNet Radical Psychology Network, the 1997 publication of Critical Psychology: An Introduction ( edited by Dennis Fox and Isaac Prilleltensky ; expanded 2009 edition edited by Dennis Fox, Isaac Prilleltensky, and Stephanie Austin ), and the action-focused PsyACT ( Psychologists Acting with Conscience Together ).

Some mark Haeckel's definition as the beginning ; others say it was Eugenius Warming with the writing of Oecology of Plants: An Introduction to the Study of Plant Communities ( 1895 ), or Carl Linnaeus ' principles on the economy of nature that matured in the early 18th century.

* Introduction to Electrodynamics ( 3rd Edition ), D. J.

* Jacobi an Fichte, German Text ( 1799 / 1816 ), with Introduction and Critical Apparatus by Marco Ivaldo and Ariberto Acerbi ( Introduction, German Text, Italian Translation, 3 Appendices with Jacobi's and Fichte's complementary Texts, Philological Notes, Commentary, Bibliography, Index ): Istituto Italiano per gli Studi Filosofici-Press, Naples 2011, ISBN 978-88-905957-5-2.

* Holtz, R. and Kovacs, W. ( 1981 ), An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering, Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-13-484394-0

Zhifang waiji, with translation ( Italian ), Introduction and commentary by Paolo De Troia, Brescia, Fondazione Civiltà Bresciana / Centro Giulio Aleni, 2009, with a full Map of ten thousand countries ( Wangguo quantu )

* Rothenstein, John, An Introduction to English Painting, 2002 ( reissue ), I. B. Tauris, ISBN 1860646786, 9781860646782

He has collaborated with scholars of Islam, conceiving World Religions in America: An Introduction ( fourth edition, Louisville 2009 ), which explores how diverse religions have developed in the distinctive American context.

* Walker, Steven F. and Segal, Robert A., Jung and the Jungians on Myth: An Introduction, Theorists of Myth, Routledge ( 1996 ), ISBN 978-0-8153-2259-7.

In both Universals and Scientific Realism and Universals: An Opinionated Introduction, Armstrong describes the relative merits of a number of nominalist theories which appeal either to " natural classes " ( a view he ascribes to Anthony Quinton ), concepts, resemblance relations or predicates, and also discusses non-realist " trope " accounts ( which he describes in the Universals and Scientific Realism volumes as " particularism ").

Perhaps the above can be made clearer by the discussion of classes in Introduction to the 2nd Edition, which disposes of the Axiom of Reducibility and replaces it with the notion: " All functions of functions are extensional " ( PM 1962: xxxix ), i. e.,

* Ian Peirce, Ewart Oakeshott ( Introduction ), Swords of the Viking Age, 2004, ISBN 0-85115-914-1

* Kosar, Kevin R. ( 2006 ), " Privatisation and the Federal Government: An Introduction ", Report from the Congressional Research Service

* Holm, John ( 2000 ), An Introduction to Pidgins and Creoles, Cambridge Univ.

From 1900 on, he began lecturing about concrete details of the spiritual world ( s ), culminating in the publication in 1904 of the first of several systematic presentations, his Theosophy: An Introduction to the Spiritual Processes in Human Life and in the Cosmos, followed by How to Know Higher Worlds ( 1904 / 5 ), Cosmic Memory ( a collection of articles written between 1904 and 1908 ), and An Outline of Esoteric Science ( 1910 ).

* Kant, Immanuel ( 1800 ), Introduction to Logic.

American Political Parties and Elections: A Very Short Introduction ( 2007 ), 144 pp

• LibriVox free audiobook of Dr. Esperanto's International Language: Introduction and Complete Grammar ( English translation of " Unua Libro " by R. H. Geoghegan, 1889 ), mp3 or ogg files, read by Nicholas James Bridgewater http :// librivox. org / dr-esperantos-international-language-introduction-and-complete-grammar-by-ll-zamenhof /

* Vesalius's « Anatomies » Introduction by Jacqueline Vons texts digitized by the BIUM ( Bibliothèque interuniversitaire de médecine et d ' odontologie, Paris ), see its digital library Medic @.