Pakistan was created in 1947 expressly as a Muslim state, but when the army took over eleven years later it did so on a wave of mass impatience which was directed in part against the inability of political and religious leaders to think their way through to the meaning of Islam for the modern political situation.

Two years later, in 1120, he defeated a Muslim army intent on reconquering his new capital at the Battle of Cutanda.

This gave Andronikos the opportunity to seize the crown for himself, leaving his retirement in 1182 and marching to Constantinople with an army that ( according to non-Byzantine sources ) included Muslim contingents.

"( Charlemagne's ) army was enlisted to help the Muslim governors of Barcelona and Zaragoza against the Umayyad ( emir ) in Cordoba ..." Essentially Charlemagne was being hired as a mercenary, even though he likely had other plans of acquiring the area for his own empire.

The armies raised by this " Ma Clique ", most notably their Muslim cavalry, were incorporated into the KMT army.

Chiang designated Ma's Muslim army as the 36th Division ( National Revolutionary Army ) and gave his troops Kuomintang flags and uniforms.

One of these was the Battle of Kashgar ( 1934 ) where a Muslim army loyal to the Kuomintang massacred 4, 500 Uyghurs, and killed several British at the British consulate in Kashgar.

However, this may have been a mask, as Raymond through Eleanor tried to forcibly sway Louis to use his army to attack the actual Muslim encampment at nearby Aleppo, gateway to recovering Edessa, the objective of the Crusade by papal decree.

His long march to Jerusalem and back north debilitated his army, but her imprisonment disheartened her knights, and the divided Crusade armies could not overcome the Muslim forces.

The city was both Christian and Muslim, and both Moors and Christians served in the army and as administrators.

* 1543 – Battle of Wayna Daga – A combined army of Ethiopian and Portuguese troops defeats a Muslim army led by Ahmed Gragn.

Indeed in 1939, laws were passed that allowed Muslims to be permitted to join the National Fascist Party and in particular the Muslim Association of the Lictor ( Associazione Musulmana del Littorio ), and the 1939 reforms allowed the creation of Libyan military units within the Italian army.

The Kuomintang Muslim General Ma Bufang waged war on the invading Tibetans during the Sino-Tibetan War with his Muslim army, and he repeatedly crushed Tibetan revolts during bloody battles in Qinghai provinces.

Ma Bufang was fully supported by the Kuomintang President of China Chiang Kaishek, who ordered him to prepare his Muslim army to invade Tibet several times and threatened aerial bombardment on the Tibetans.

However, Muslim politicians were also worried that a strong army could be used against Muslim interests because it would be commanded by Christians.

Conquered by the Ottoman army in the first half of the 15th century, the region remained a part of the Ottoman Empire for nearly 500 years, during which it gained a substantial Turkish minority, especially in the religious sense of Muslim ; some of those Muslims became so through conversions.

* 1827 – Russo-Persian War: The Russian army under Ivan Paskevich storms Yerevan, ending a millennium of Muslim domination in Armenia.

In late summer, a Muslim army overran much of Pelayo's territory, forcing him to retreat deep into the mountains.

From here, Pelayo's forces routed the Muslim army, inspiring local villagers to take up arms.

Elsewhere in the Mediterranean, when the Knights Hospitallers were re-established as the Knights of Malta in 1530, their actions against Muslim navies quickly drew the ire of the Ottomans who assembled another massive army in order to dislodge the Knights from Malta.

On 21 February 1543, however, a joint Portuguese-Ethiopian force defeated the Muslim army at the Battle of Wayna Daga, in which Ahmed Gurey was killed and the war won.

In 732 AD, Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi and a large army of Muslim horsemen from Al-Andalus advanced 500 km deep into France, and were stopped at Tours by Charles Martel and his infantry igniting the Battle of Tours.

The new regime in Turkey is intentionally less Muslim than its predecessor.

Azerbaijan is one of the few countries with predominantly Muslim populations that shares a strategic alliance with Israel.

" Ever since the time of my ancestor Ali, the first Imam, that is to say over a period of thirteen hundred years, it has always been the tradition of our family that each Imam chooses his successor at his absolute and unfettered discretion from amongst any of his descendants, whether they be sons or remote male issue and in these circumstances and in view of the fundamentally altered conditions in the world in very recent years due to the great changes which have taken place including the discoveries of atomic science, I am convinced that it is in the best interest of the Shia Muslim Ismailia Community that I should be succeeded by a young man who has been brought up and developed during recent years and in the midst of the new age and who brings a new outlook on life to his office as Imam.

He is generally considered a world conquest military genius, given his successful strategy: he attempted to close all the Indian Ocean naval passages to the Atlantic, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and to the Pacific, transforming it into a Portuguese mare clausum established over the Ottoman power and their Muslim and Hindu allies .< ref >

This treatise is not mentioned in surviving Greek sources, but it enjoyed great popularity in the Muslim world, and a large number of copies have survived.

* 2003 – Ayatollah Sayed Mohammed Baqir al-Hakim, the Shia Muslim leader in Iraq, is assassinated in a terrorist bombing, along with nearly 100 worshippers as they leave a mosque in Najaf.

Abu Sayyaf (;, ASG, ) also known as al-Harakat al-Islamiyya is one of several military Islamist separatist groups based in and around the southern Philippines, in Bangsamoro ( Jolo and Basilan ), where for almost 30 years various Muslim groups have been engaged in an insurgency for an independent province in the country.

Besides Turkic people, large part of the Ghaznavid Empire was made up of local Muslim Afghans from what is now Afghanistan and western parts of Pakistan.

In Saudi Arabia, eating in public during the daytime is prohibited during the Muslim month of Ramadan.

Bethlehem has a Muslim majority, but is also home to one of the largest Palestinian Christian communities.

A majority of the forty-odd Israeli settlements surrounding Bethlehem is built on land confiscated from Christian, not Muslim, Palestinians.

The majority of the population in Kalimantan is either Muslim or practice animism.

The Islamic calendar or Muslim calendar or Hijri calendar is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 lunar months in a year of 354 or 355 days.

It is used to date events in most of the Muslim countries ( concurrently with the Gregorian calendar ), and used by Muslims everywhere to determine the proper day on which to celebrate Islamic holy days and festivals.

He ordered that an imam meet him there in order to chant the Muslim Creed: “ I testify that there is no God but Allah.

Chuck is a pescatarian and Sunni Muslim.

Especially the works of Liu Zhu such as Tiānfāng Diǎnlǐ （ 天方典禮 ） sought to harmonize Islam with not only Confucianism but Daoism and is considered to be one of the crowning achievements of the Chinese Muslim culture.

Although many hard-line and extremist Muslim societies have adopted capital punishment for other than the crime of murder, this is in violation of the Qur ' anic law mentioned above, and so is rejected by most orthodox commentators and scholars.

" Student ID cards sometimes indicate whether a student is Muslim, and will allow access to these dining areas, or will allow access on special occasions such as the Eid feast following Ramadan.

A mercury clock, described in the Libros del saber, a Spanish work from 1277 consisting of translations and paraphrases of Arabic works, is sometimes quoted as evidence for Muslim knowledge of a mechanical clock.

He returned three months later just before the city was about to surrender and defeated the Muslim invaders on June 9, 721, at what is now known as the Battle of Toulouse.

Unlike the Muslim world, which has a geo-political and cultural definition that provides a primary identifier for a large swath of the world, Christendom is more complex.

It is also less geographically cohesive than the Muslim world, which stretches almost continuously from North Africa to South Asia.