Philoponus ' arguments against an infinite past were used by the early Muslim philosopher, Al-Kindi ( Alkindus ); the Jewish philosopher, Saadia Gaon ( Saadia ben Joseph ); and the Muslim theologian, Al-Ghazali ( Algazel ).

* Al-Ghazali ( a. k. a. Algazel ), celebrated Muslim scholar

To defend the possibility of miracles and God's omnipotence against the encroachment of the independent secondary causes, some medieval Muslim theologians such as Al-Ghazali rejected the idea of cause and effect in essence, but accepted it as something that facilitates humankind's investigation and comprehension of natural processes.

In an attempt to define consensus in a form which was more likely to ever occur, Al-Ghazali expanding on al-Shafi ' i's definition to define consensus as including all of the Muslim community in regard to religious principles and restricting the meaning to only the religiously learned in regard to finer details.

Al-Ghazali ( 1058 – 1111 ) the Muslim Sufi thinker wrote the Alchemy of Happiness, a manual of spiritual instruction throughout the Muslim world and widely practiced today.

His reasoning was adopted by many, most notably ; Muslim philosopher, Al-Kindi ( Alkindus ); the Jewish philosopher, Saadia Gaon ( Saadia ben Joseph ); and the Muslim theologian, Al-Ghazali ( Algazel ).

Among the important early Muslim scholars who made valuable contributions to economic theory are Abu Yusuf ( d. 798 ), Al-Mawardi ( d. 1058 ), Ibn Hazm ( d. 1064 ), Al-Sarakhsi ( d. 1090 ), Al-Tusi ( d. 1093 ), Al-Ghazali ( d. 1111 ), Al-Dimashqi ( d. after 1175 ), Ibn Rushd ( d. 1187 ), Ibn Taymiyyah ( d. 1328 ), Ibn al-Ukhuwwah ( d. 1329 ), Ibn al-Qayyim ( d. 1350 ), Al-Shatibi ( d. 1388 ), Ibn Khaldun ( d. 1406 ), Al-Maqrizi ( d. 1442 ), Al-Dawwani ( d. 1501 ), and Shah Waliyullah ( d. 1762 ).

However other contemporary scholars such as Nuh Ha Mim Keller, a Sheikh in the Shadili Order hold that the criticism of kalam from early scholars was specific to the Mu ' tazila, going on to claim that other historical Muslim scholars such as Al-Ghazali, As-Subki, An-Nawawi and even the four Madh ' hab saw both good and bad in kalam and cautioned from the speculative excess of unorthodox groups such as the Mu ' tazilah and Jahmiyya.

His were adopted by many including, most notably, early Muslim philosopher, Al-Kindi ( Alkindus ); the Jewish philosopher, Saadia Gaon ( Saadia ben Joseph ); and the Muslim theologian, Al-Ghazali ( Algazel ).

In Islamic theology, jurisprudence and philosophy, and in Hadith collection, many of the greatest Islamic scholars came from Khorasan, namely Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Abu Hanifa, Imam Bukhari, Imam Muslim, Abu Dawood, Al-Tirmidhi, Al-Nasa ' i, Al-Ghazali, Al-Juwayni, Abu Mansur Maturidi, Fakhruddin al-Razi, and others.

However, the most sophisticated medieval arguments against an infinite past were developed by the Islamic philosopher, Al-Kindi ( Alkindus ); the Jewish philosopher, Saadia Gaon ( Saadia ben Joseph ); and the Islamic theologian, Al-Ghazali ( Algazel ).

According to the Islamic jurist Al-Ghazali ( Algazel, 1058 – 1111 ), the government was also expected to store up food supplies in every region in case a disaster or famine occurred.

According to the Islamic jurist Al-Ghazali ( Algazel, 1058 – 1111 ), the government was also expected to stockpile food supplies in every region in case of disaster or famine.

According to the Islamic jurist Al-Ghazali ( Algazel, 1058 – 1111 ), the government was also expected to store up food supplies in every region in case a disaster or famine occurred.

The medieval Islamic scholar and mystic Al-Ghazali divided the concept of Nafs ( soul or self ( spirituality )) into three categories based on the Qur ’ an:

Al-Ghazali abstracted these " basic goods " from the legal precepts in the Qur ' an and Sunnah: they are religion, life, reason, lineage and property.

Al-Ghazali and William James have rejected their pessimism after suffering psychological, or even psychosomatic illness.

In Islamic philosophy, skepticism was established by Al-Ghazali ( 1058 – 1111 ), known in the West as " Algazel ", as part of the orthodox Ash ' ari school of Islamic theology, whose method of skepticism shares many similarities with Descartes ' method.

* The Almoravid Ali ibn Yusuf organizes an auto-da-fé of the works of Al-Ghazali in front of the great mosque of Cordoba.

Al-Ghazali argued that Aristotelianism, especially as presented in the writings of Avicenna, was self-contradictory and an affront to the teachings of Islam.

Al-Ghazali argued that Aristotelianism, especially as presented in the writings of Avicenna, was self-contradictory and an affront to the teachings of Islam.

Al-Ghazali and Rumi are two notable examples.

The Mouride beliefs are based on Qur ' anic and Sufi traditions and influenced by the Qadiriyya and Tijaan brotherhoods, as well as the Islamic scholar Al-Ghazali.

This supreme exaltation of philosophy may be attributed, in great measure, to Al-Ghazali ( 1058 – 1111 ) among the Persians, and to Judah ha-Levi ( 1140 ) among the Jews.

Al-Ghazali ( Algazel ) ( 1058 – 1111 ) had an important influence on the use of logic in theology, making use of Avicennian logic in Kalam.

Like Al-Ghazali, Judah Ha-Levi attempted to liberate religion from the bondage of philosophical systems.

This supreme exaltation of philosophy may be attributed, in great measure, to Al-Ghazali ( 1005 – 1111 ) among the Persians, and to Judah ha-Levi ( 1140 ) among the Jews.

It can be argued that the attacks directed against the philosophers by Al-Ghazali in his work, Tahafut al-Falasifa ( The Incoherence of the Philosophers ), not only produced, by reaction, a current favorable to philosophy, but induced the philosophers themselves to profit by his criticism.

Al-Ghazali ( Algazel ) ( 1058 – 1111 ) had an important influence on the use of logic in theology, making use of Avicennian logic in Kalam.

In this work, Descartes tackles the problem of skepticism, which had previously been studied by Sextus Empiricus, Al-Ghazali and Michel de Montaigne.

* Wasil ibn Ata, Muslim theologian ( b. 700 )

* Ibn Hazm, Muslim philosopher and theologian

* Abu Mansur Al Maturidi, Muslim theologian

He is not mentioned in any Jewish source, and apart from the Andalusian heresiographer and polemicist Ibn Ḥazm, who mentions him as a Jewish mutakallim ( rational theologian ), our main source of information is Kitāb al-Tanbīh by the Muslim historian al-Masʿūdī ( d. 956 ).

Famous local Sheikhs include Abdirahman bin Isma ' il al-Jabarti, an early Muslim leader in northern Somalia ; Abadir Umar Ar-Rida, the patron saint of Harar ; Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti, Sheikh of the riwaq in Cairo who recorded the Napoleonic invasion of Egypt ; Abd Al-Rahman bin Ahmad al-Zayla ' i, scholar who played a crucial role in the spread of the Qadiriyyah movement in Somalia and East Africa ; Shaykh Sufi, 19th century scholar, poet, reformist and astrologist ; Abdallah al-Qutbi, polemicist, theologian and philosopher best known for his five-part Al-Majmu ' at al-mubaraka (" The Blessed Collection "); and Muhammad Al-Sumaalee, teacher in the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca who influenced many of the prominent Islamic scholars of today.

Ashʿari theology ( Arabic الأشعرية al-Asha ` riyya or الأشاعرة al-Ashā ` irah ) is a school of early Muslim speculative theology founded by the theologian Abu al-Hasan al-Ash ' ari ( d. 324 AH / 936 AD ).

# Al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrī ( d. 728, an early Persian Muslim theologian )

The writings of Catholic theologian Thomas Aquinas frequently cite those of the Jewish philosopher Moses Maimonides, as well as Muslim thinker Averoes (' Ibn-Rushd ).

Ahmad bin Muhammad bin Hanbal Abu ` Abd Allah al-Shaybani ( 780 — 855 CE / 164 — 241 AH ) () was an important Muslim scholar and theologian.

These include one Arab Muslim ( diplomat Ali Yahya ), two Arab Christians ( writer Emile Habibi and actor Makram Khoury ), one Circassian ( industrialist Eldin Khatukai ), two Druze ( judge Amin Tarif and government official Kamal Mansour ), and one French Catholic ( theologian Marcel-Jacques Dubois ).

Wasil ibn Ata ( 700 – 748 ) () was an important Muslim theologian and jurist of his time, and by many accounts is considered to be the founder of the Mutazilite school of Islamic thought.

Warith Deen Mohammed ( born Wallace D. Muhammad ; October 30, 1933 – September 9, 2008 ), also known as " W. Deen Mohammed " or " Imam W. Deen Muhammad ", was a progressive African American Muslim leader, theologian, philosopher, Muslim revivalist and Islamic thinker ( 1975 – 2008 ) who disbanded the original Nation of Islam in 1976 and transformed it into an orthodox mainstream Islamic movement, the World Community of Al-Islam in the West which later became the American Society of Muslims.

During the era of relative religious tolerance that followed, writers such as the Jewish theologian Maimonides ( 1135 – 1204 ) or the Muslim polymath ( 1126 – 1198 ) Averroes penned works of theology, science, philosophy, and mathematics that would have lasting impacts on Hebrew and Muslim philosophy and prove essential to the flowering of the European Renaissance centuries later.

Muhammad Abu Mansur al-Maturidi ( 853 AD-333 AH / 944 AD ) () was a Turkic Muslim theologian, and a scholar of Islamic jurisprudence and Qur ' anic exegesis.

He was a Muslim theologian and his background is claimed as Turkic or Tajik.

Ibrahim Müteferrika or ( born 1674 in Kolozsvár ( present-day Cluj-Napoca, Romania ) – died 1745, in Istanbul, ( Ottoman Empire now Turkey )); was a Transylvanian-born Ottoman diplomat, polymath: a publisher, printer, courtier, economist, man of letters, astronomer, historian, historiographer, Islamic scholar and theologian, sociologist, and the first Muslim to run a printing press with movable Arabic type.