These studies are being extended to different polymers to increase our knowledge about the hindrances to rotation around chain bonds.

These polymers are linear and unbranched, with each amino acid within the chain attached to two neighboring amino acids.

Plastics are made from synthetic carbon polymers, often with oxygen and nitrogen atoms included at regular intervals in the main polymer chain.

In 1923, Danish and Dutch scientists Christian Christiansen and Hendrik Anthony Kramers, in an analysis of formation of polymers, pointed out that such a chain reaction need not start with a molecule excited by light, but could also start with two molecules colliding violently in the traditional way classically previously proposed for initiation of chemical reactions, by van't Hoff.

Polyether generally refers to polymers which contain the ether functional group in their main chain.

**** polyesters-any of several polymers with ester linkages in the backbone chain

Bifunctional monomers lead to linear chains ( and therefore thermoplastic polymers ), but, when the monomer functionality exceeds two, the product is a branched chain that may yield a thermoset polymer.

The resin consists of monomers or short chain polymers with an epoxide group at either end.

Under pressure and heat, long chain polymers of hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon decompose into short-chain petroleum hydrocarbons with a maximum length of around 18 carbons.

Because their polymerization is stochastically driven, chain lengths in any real population of synthetic polymers will obey a statistical distribution.

But there is reason to believe ( e. g., neutron diffraction studies ) that excluded volume effects may cancel out, so that, under certain conditions, chain dimensions in amorphous polymers have approximately the ideal, calculated size

Stiffer polymers such as helical polypeptides, Kevlar, and double-stranded DNA can be treated by the worm-like chain model.

Single molecules, short chain ( oligomers ) and organic polymers can be semiconductive.

Polyanhydrides are a class of polymers characterized by anhydride bonds that connect repeat units of the polymer backbone chain.

Step-growth polymerization refers to a type of polymerization mechanism in which bi-functional or multifunctional monomers react to form first dimers, then trimers, longer oligomers and eventually long chain polymers.

Polymer molecules, even ones of the same type, come in different sizes ( chain lengths, for linear polymers ), so the average molecular weight will depend on the method of averaging.

Polymer molecules, even if of the same type, come in different sizes ( chain lengths, for linear polymers ), so we have to take an average of some kind.

If the rate of termination is much larger than the rate of propagation, then very small polymers are formed with chain lengths of 2-5 repeating units ( telomerization ).

* Stable Free Radical Polymerization ( SFRP ): used to synthesize linear or branched polymers with narrow molecular weight distributions and reactive end groups on each polymer chain.

Synthesis, structure and property of liquid crystalline side group and main chain polymers ; variation of the type of mesogens ( rods, discs, boards ) and variation of phases.

Many polymers are also attacked by UV radiation at vulnerable points in their chain structures.

The production of branched polymers from ethylene relies on chain walking, a key step of which is beta-hydride elimination.

In cast resin components made of glass reinforced polymers such as UP and EP, the orientation of fibres can be oriented in two-dimensional and three-dimensional weaves.

Wood and other plant materials used to make pulp contain three main components ( apart from water ): cellulose fibres ( desired for papermaking ), lignin ( a three-dimensional polymer that binds the cellulose fibers together ) and hemicelluloses, ( shorter branched carbohydrate polymers ).

The development of three-dimensional orientations arose from industry's need to reduce fabrication costs, to increase through-thickness mechanical properties, and to improve impact damage tolerance ; all were problems associated with two dimensional fibre reinforced polymers.

Silicon does, however, form complex one -, two-and three-dimensional polymers in which oxygen atoms form bridges between silicon atoms.

Wood and other plant materials used to make pulp contain three main components ( apart from water ): cellulose fibres ( desired for papermaking ), lignin ( a three-dimensional polymer that binds the cellulose fibres together ) and hemicelluloses, ( shorter branched carbohydrate polymers ).

Solvent based adhesives are a mixture of ingredients ( typically polymers ) dissolved in a solvent.

100 % solid PSAs may be low viscosity polymers that are coated and then reacted with radiation to increase molecular weight and form the adhesive ; or they may be high viscosity materials that are heated to reduce viscosity enough to allow coating, and then cooled to their final form.

Major raw material for PSA's are acrylate based polymers.

Examples of thermosetting adhesives are: epoxy, polyurethane, cyanoacrylate and acrylic polymers.

The resulting polymers, called polyacetylenes ( which do not contain alkyne units ) are conjugated and can exhibit semiconducting properties.

Modern bridge are currently built in concrete, steel, fiber reinforced polymers ( FRP ), stainless steel or combinations of those materials.

Many biological molecules are polymers: in this terminology, monomers are relatively small micromolecules that are linked together to create large macromolecules, which are known as polymers.

Sugar polymers are characterised by having reducing or non-reducing ends.

Biopolymers are polymers produced by living organisms.

Since they are polymers, biopolymers contain monomeric units that are covalently bonded to form larger structures.

There are three main classes of biopolymers based on the differing monomeric units used and the structure of the biopolymer formed: polynucleotides, which are long polymers composed of 13 or more nucleotide monomers ; polypeptides, which are short polymers of amino acids ; and polysaccharides, which are often linear bonded polymeric carbohydrate structures.

Condensation polymers are any kind of polymers formed through a condensation reaction -- where molecules join together -- losing small molecules as by-products such as water or methanol, as opposed to addition polymers which involve the reaction of unsaturated monomers.

Peptides ( from the Greek πεπτός, " digested " from πέσσειν " to digest ") are short polymers of amino acid monomers linked by peptide bonds, the covalent chemical bonds formed between two molecules when the carboxyl group of one molecule reacts with the amino group of the other molecule.

However, the main theoretical reason is that whereas the other polymers listed here are primarily generated in a ' template-dependent ' manner by one processive enzyme, each individual join in a polysaccharide may be formed by a different enzyme.

* Skin: fabrics based upon light emitting and conductive polymers, organic computer devices, can be formed into more flexible non-planar display surfaces and products such as clothes and curtains, see OLED display.

Polyurethane polymers are formed by combining two or several bi-or higher functional monomers.

Polyurethane polymers are formed by combining two bi-or higher functional monomers / oligomers.

Most of the common addition polymers are formed from unsaturated monomers ( usually having a double bond ).

Addition polymers are also formed from monomers having closed ring.

Another complication is that many of the higher polymers are formed extremely slowly, such that equilibrium may not be attained even in months, leading to possible errors in the equilibrium constants and the predominance diagram.

Besides the necessary basic organic monomers, compounds that would have prohibited the formation of polymers were formed in high concentration during the Miller – Urey and Oró experiments.

Typically, polyurethane polymers are made by combining diisocyanates, e. g. toluene diisocyanate, and diols, where the carbamate groups are formed by reaction of the alcohols with the isocyanates:

The polymers she had been working with at the time, poly-p-Phenylene-terephthalate and polybenzamide, formed liquid crystal while in solution, something unique to those polymers at the time.

When solutions of two oppositely charged polymers ( that is, a solution of polycation and one of polyanion ) are mixed, a bulk complex ( precipitate ) is usually formed.

In some cases, polysulfide polymers can be formed by ring-opening polymerization reactions.