Aristotle " says that ' on the subject of reasoning ' he ' had nothing else on an earlier date to speak of '".

In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by Gerard of Cremona, and from the original Greek, such as those by James of Venice and William of Moerbeke.

Two aspects of this attitude deserve to be mentioned: 1 ) he did not only study science from books, as other academics did in his day, but actually observed and experimented with nature ( the rumours starting by those who did not understand this are probably at the source of Albert's supposed connections with alchemy and witchcraft ), 2 ) he took from Aristotle the view that scientific method had to be appropriate to the objects of the scientific discipline at hand ( in discussions with Roger Bacon, who, like many 20th century academics, thought that all science should be based on mathematics ).

On the subject of alchemy and chemistry, many treatises relating to Alchemy have been attributed to him, though in his authentic writings he had little to say on the subject, and then mostly through commentary on Aristotle.

There were the seeds ( spermata ) or miniatures of wheat and flesh and gold in the primitive mixture ; but these parts, of like nature with their wholes ( the homoiomereiai of Aristotle ), had to be eliminated from the complex mass before they could receive a definite name and character.

According to Aristotle, he expanded the number of characters in plays to allow for conflict amongst them, whereas previously characters had interacted only with the chorus.

Nevertheless, according to Aristotle some thought that Aeschylus had revealed some of the cult's secrets on stage.

Aristotle knew of this tradition when he began his Metaphysics, and had already drawn his own conclusion, which he presented under the guise of asking what being is :" And indeed the question which was raised of old is raised now and always, and is always the subject of doubt, viz., what being is, is just the question, what is substance?

Aristotle had arrived at the real distinction between matter and form, metaphysical components whose interpenetration produces the paradox.

As Aristotle offered the categories and the act of existence, and Aquinas the analogy of being, the rationalists also had their own system, the great chain of being, an interlocking hierarchy of beings from God to dust.

Some philosophers who have had more noteworthy theories are Parmenides, Leucippus, Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, Plotinus, Aquinas, Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Hegel, Heidegger, and Sartre.

Charles Sanders Peirce, who had read Kant closely and who also had some knowledge of Aristotle, proposed a system of merely three phenomenological categories: Firstness, Secondness, and Thirdness, which he repeatedly invoked in his subsequent writings.

Plato ( c. 427 – 347 BC ) and Aristotle ( c. 384 – 322 BC ) both posited first cause arguments, though each had certain notable caveats.

Theologian Benjamin Wiker argues that Aristotle had ideas similar to those of some modern conservatives.

To be truly human, one had to be an active citizen to the community, which Aristotle famously expressed: “ To take no part in the running of the community's affairs is to be either a beast or a god !” This form of citizenship was based on obligations of citizens towards the community, rather than rights given to the citizens of the community.

Aristotle had it that an object's essential attributes form its " essential nature ", and that a definition of the object must include these essential attributes.

Aristotle asserted that man had three natures: vegetable ( physical / metabolism ), animal ( emotional / appetite ) and rational ( mental / conceptual ).

Although most of the relevant tissues and endocrine glands had been identified by early anatomists, a more humoral approach to understanding biological function and disease was favoured by the ancient Greek and Roman thinkers such as Aristotle, Hippocrates, Lucretius, Celsus, and Galen, according to Freeman et al., and these theories held sway until the advent of germ theory, physiology, and organ basis of pathology in the 19th century.

Early medieval writers often had fuzzy and imprecise impressions of both Ptolemy and Aristotle and relied more on Pliny, but they felt ( with one exception ), little urge to assume flatness.

Prior to this work, the concept of a set was a rather elementary one that had been used implicitly since the beginnings of mathematics, dating back to the ideas of Aristotle.

Similarly, it was commonly believed by Medieval people that other ancient figures like the poet Virgil, astronomer Ptolemy and philosopher Aristotle had been involved in magic, and grimoires claiming to have been written by them were circulated.

The ancients had a variety of ideas about heredity: Theophrastus proposed that male flowers caused female flowers to ripen ; Hippocrates speculated that " seeds " were produced by various body parts and transmitted to offspring at the time of conception ; and Aristotle thought that male and female semen mixed at conception.

Aristotle not only studied almost every subject possible at the time, but made significant contributions to most of them.

Russell notes that these errors make it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembers how large of an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.

Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained " Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines ; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?

With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early medieval Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the Organon made by Boethius.

The challenge to the assumption that beauty was central to art and aesthetics, thought to be original, is actually continuous with older aesthetic theory ; Aristotle was the first in the Western tradition to classify " beauty " into types as in his theory of drama, and Kant made a distinction between beauty and the sublime.

Although observations of some aerodynamic effects such as wind resistance ( e. g. drag ) were recorded by Aristotle, Leonardo da Vinci and Galileo Galilei, very little effort was made to develop a rigorous quantitative theory of air flow prior to the 17th century.

Aristotle believed that all matter was made up of aether, or some combination of four elements: earth, water, air, and fire.

The context of this remark, however, suggests only that Aristotle advised that it could be rhetorically advantageous to appeal to such a law, especially when the " particular " law of ones ' own city was adverse to the case being made, not that there actually was such a law ; Aristotle, moreover, considered two of the three candidates for a universally valid, natural law suggested in this passage to be wrong.

The context of this remark, however, suggests only that Aristotle advised that it could be rhetorically advantageous to appeal to such a law, especially when the " particular " law of one's own city was averse to the case being made, not that there actually was such a law ; Aristotle, moreover, considered two of the three candidates for a universally valid, natural law provided in this passage to be wrong.

Long before the first photographs were made, Chinese philosopher Mo Di and Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid described a pinhole camera in the 5th and 4th centuries BC.

Paul Waldau writes that the overriding of animals ' interests was traditionally justified by arguing that they existed for human use ; Aristotle made this claim in the 4th century BCE, as did Cicero in the 1st century CE.

Vesalius, undeterred, went on to stir up more controversy, this time disproving not just Galen but also Mondino de Liuzzi and even Aristotle ; all three had made assumptions about the functions and structure of the heart that were clearly wrong.

Early attempts to formulate laws in material terms were made by ancient philosophers, including Aristotle, but suffered both from lack of definitions and lack of accurate observations ( experimenting ), and hence had various misconceptions – such as the assumption that observed effects were due to intrinsic properties of objects, e. g. " heaviness ," " lightness ," " wetness ," etc.

Philosophers, mathematicians, and others ancient and modern such as Aristotle, Plato, Frege, Wittgenstein, Russell etc., have made a distinction between thought corresponding to reality, coherent abstractions, and that which cannot even be rationally thought.

By bringing Chrysoloras to Florence, Salutati made it possible for a select group of scholars ( including Bruni and Vergerio ) to read Aristotle and Plato in the original ancient Greek.

Aristotle made the statement "... the citizens must not live a mechanic or a mercantile life ( for such a life is ignoble and inimical to virtue ), nor yet must those who are to be citizens in the best state be tillers of the soil （ for leisure is needed both for the development of virtue and for active participation in politics.

Although a similar observation was made by Aristotle and was known to Greek and Medieval logicians ( in the 14th century, William of Ockham wrote down the words that would result by reading the laws out ), De Morgan is given credit for stating the laws formally and incorporating them in to the language of logic.

While his work in natural philosophy is probably overshadowed by Aristotle, it still helped lay the foundations for much of the progress that was made in the later centuries.

Aristotle in his will made him guardian of his children, including Nicomachus with whom he was close.

" Aristotle defines X's matter as the " constituents " of X, as " that out of which " X is made.

He was the son of Hero ( niece of Aristotle ) and Proxenus of Atarneus, which made him the great nephew of Aristotle by his sister Arimneste.