In 1687 the Turks, who had been in control of the city since the fifteenth century, with a truly shattering lack of prudence used the Parthenon as a powder magazine.

In the 10 years following the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, the Seljuk Turks from Central Asia established themselves over large areas of Anatolia, with particular concentrations around the north western rim.

In 1071 Romanos again took the field and advanced with possibly 30, 000 men, including a contingent of the Cuman Turks as well as contingents of Franks and Normans, under Ursel de Baieul, into Armenia.

Inheriting a collapsing empire and faced with constant warfare during his reign against both the Seljuq Turks in Asia Minor and the Normans in the western Balkans, Alexios was able to halt the Byzantine decline and begin the military, financial, and territorial recovery known as the Komnenian restoration.

Under one of these emperors, Romanos IV Diogenes ( 1067 – 1071 ), Alexios served with distinction against the Seljuq Turks.

Alexios dealt with the first disorganized group of Crusaders, led by the preacher Peter the Hermit, by sending them on to Asia Minor, where they were massacred by the Turks in 1096.

In the east the Empire was overrun by the Seljuk Turks ; from the north Bulgarians and Vlachs descended unchecked to ravage the plains of Macedonia and Thrace, and Kaloyan of Bulgaria annexed several important cities, while Alexios squandered the public treasure on his palaces and gardens and attempted to deal with the crisis through diplomatic means.

He and his family were pensioned and one of them aided in the defence of Aegina against the Turks, in 1537, was captured with his family and died in a Turkish dungeon.

The area thrived during the Ottoman Empire, as the centre of opium production and Afyon became a wealthy city with the typical Ottoman urban mixture of Turks, Armenians and Greeks.

The Polish commanders were hoping to break into the Cossack ranks with an impetous charge of the famous Polish ' Winged ' Hussars-a tactic proven effective in many previous battles, including Kircholm, and Kłuszyn ( and which would later prove successful at the 1683 Battle of Vienna against the Turks ).

Later, as the Egyptians retreated out of Sudan during the Mahdist rebellion, the British brokered an agreement whereby the Egyptians could retreat through Ethiopia, and in exchange they would allow the Emperor to occupy those lowland districts that he had disputed with the Turks and Egyptians.

170, 000 Greek Cypriots were evicted from their homes in the north with 50, 000 Turks following the opposite path concluding the de facto division of Cyprus.

Accordingly, the Turks reversed themselves and agreed with the Russians.

In the 19th century, Gallipoli () was a district ( kaymakamlik ) in the Vilayet of Adrianople, with about thirty thousand inhabitants: comprising Greeks, Turks, Armenians and Jews.

But the Reformation spread rapidly, helped by the Emperor Charles V's wars with France and the Turks.

Louis XIV benefited from the Empire's problems with the Turks, which were menacing Austria.

On the eastern front, the Turks continued to loom large as a threat, although war would mean further compromises with the Protestant princes, and so the Emperor sought to avoid that.

Of the icon painting tradition that developed in Byzantium, with Constantinople as the chief city, we have only a few icons from the 11th century and none preceding them, in part because of the Iconoclastic reforms during which many were destroyed, and also because of plundering by Venetians in 1204 during the Fourth Crusade, and finally the taking of the city by the Islamic Turks in 1453.

In 1669 the city of Heraklion, on Crete, which at one time boasted at least 120 painters, finally fell to the Turks, and from that time Greek icon painting went into a decline, with a revival attempted in the 20th century by art reformers such as Photios Kontoglou, who emphasized a return to earlier styles.

The city flourished until 1071 with the invasion of the Seljuk Turks, followed by the upheavals of the Crusades.

A successor state of the Western Turks, Khazar Khaganate ( simply Khazaria ) was a polyethnic-multifaith state with a population of Turkic, Uralic, Slavic, and Paleo-Caucasian peoples.

Beginning in the early 11th century, the Qarakhanids fought constantly among themselves and with the Seljuk Turks to the south.

The First Crusade was preached at the Council of Clermont in 1095 by Pope Urban II, with the goal of assisting the Byzantine Empire against the invasions of the Seljuq Turks.

According to Ellenblum's interpretation the inhabitants of the Kingdom ( Latin Christians living alongside native Greek and Syrian Christians, Shia and Sunni Arabs, Sufis, Bedouin, Turks, Druze, Jews, and Samaritans ) all had major differences between each other as well as with the crusaders.

High medieval sources mention the assassination of King Demetrius Zvonimir ( 1089 ), dying at the hands of his own people, who objected to a proposition by the Pope to go on a campaign to aid the Byzantines against the Seljuk Turks.

The civil war which ensued lasted six years, during which the rival parties called in the aid of the Serbians, Bulgarians, and the Ottoman Turks, and engaged mercenaries of every description.

It was only by the aid of the Ottoman Turks, with whom he made a bargain, that John VI Kantakouzenos brought the war to an end favourable to himself.

It was launched on 27 November 1095 by Pope Urban II with the primary goal of responding to an appeal from Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos, who requested that western volunteers come to his aid and help to repel the invading Seljuq Turks from Anatolia.

In March 1095, Alexios sent envoys to the Council of Piacenza to ask Pope Urban II for aid against the Turks.

In 1390, he led an embassy sent to Venice by the emperor Manuel II Palaeologus to implore the aid of the Christian princes against the Muslim Turks.

Nicholas supported transfer of the council to Italy to meet with the Greeks, who needed aid against the Ottoman Turks.

These incursions by Arabs and Turks naturally prompted the population to rely on the rest of Christian Europe for aid and relief, which contributed to the subsequent decline in the importance of the Semitic origins of Maltese culture and folklore and the ascendancy of Latin European influence on the island.

Chalkokondyles composed orations and treatises calling for the liberation of his homeland Greece from what he called “ the abominable, monstrous, and impious barbarian Turks .” In 1463 Chalkokondyles called on Venice and “ all of the Latins ” to aid the Greeks against the Ottomans, he identified this as an overdue debt and reminded the Latins how the Byzantine Greeks once came to Italy ’ s aid against the Goths in the Gothic Wars ( 535-53 C. E.

He felt the Turks had overstepped the bounds of legitimate NATO interests in Cyprus and suggested that the United States might have to reexamine its military aid program to Turkey.

However, he understood the consequences of not accepting British aid, including a further massacre of Armenians by the Turks.

The state tradition was carried on by the Serbian and Italian rulers of Ioannina, who solicited aid from the Ottoman Turks against the Albanians.

During the night of December 14 and 15 the Turks attacked in great force, but were repulsed by aid of the fire from the ships.

The Palaiologoi frequently attempted to reunite the Eastern Orthodox Church with the Roman Catholic Church, hoping this would lead the West to give them aid against the Turks.

He and Sternberg tried to organize a regiment of Assyrian Christians to aid in the fight against the Turks.

In Shirvan the rebels called on their fellow Sunnis, the Ottoman Turks and Lezgin tribesmen, to aid them.

The Seljuk Turks of Alparslan conquered the area in 1064 AD ; but after his death, it was briefly recaptured by the king of Georgia with the help of the Byzantines, but by 1081 was in Turkish hands again when Saltukoğlu Beylik managed to take it back with the aid of Melikşah.

The local militia regiment of Żejtun was one of the first to engage the Ottoman forces in the initial stages of the Great Siege of 1565, but the town continued to suffer attacks by Turkish pirates up to 1614, when an attack by the Turks was repulsed without aid from other militias.

Though decisions were hard to obtain in Constantinople after the recent death of the Vizier Murad Pasha, the Ottomans promised military aid to the opposition and decided to appoint Ghiczy instead of Gabriel, for which he pledged to restore the castles of Lippa and Jenő to the Turks and to play outstanding taxes, leaving his brother as a surety.

The Battle of Gallipoli ( 1312 ) was fought by the Serbian troops sent by Stefan Uroš II Milutin to aid the Byzantine Emperor Andronikos in the defense of his lands against the Ottoman Turks.

In 1119, Emperor John the Beautiful and his lead military aid John Axuch captured Laodicea from the Seljuk Turks in the first major military victory of his reign.

In 1048, Liparit, as a Byzantine magistros, was summoned by Constantine IX to give aid against the Seljuk Turks, advancing into Anatolia.