By spring 1941, following Himmler's orders, ten concentration camps had been constructed in which inmates were subjected to forced labour.

By the end of 1941, the Soviet military had suffered 4. 3 million casualties and German forces had advanced 1, 050 miles ( 1, 690 kilometers ).

By December 1941, Hitler's troops had advanced to within 20 miles of the Kremlin in Moscow.

By the end of 1943, the Soviets occupied half of the territory taken by the Germans from 1941 – 1942.

By 1857 he had accumulated over 800 pages of notes and short essays on capital, landed property, wage labour, the state, and foreign trade and the world market ; this work did not appear in print until 1941, under the title Grundrisse.

By September 1941, Philby was working for Section V of MI6, responsible for offensive counter-intelligence.

By early 1941, Fuchs had returned temporarily to Edinburgh.

By the winter of 1941 – 1942 just 39 percent of the fighter force was operational and possessed just 60 more combat aircraft than it did in June 1941 despite its increased commitments.

By early 1941, portable centimetric airborne radars were being tested in American and British aircraft.

By the third week in February 1941, 680, 000 German troops were stationed on the Romanian-Soviet border.

By 1941, the official newspaper, El País, had adopted an overtly pro-German stance.

By 22 June 1941 there were only 1, 475 T-34s and KV series tanks available to the Red Army, and these were too dispersed along the front to provide enough mass for even local success.

By 1941, President Roosevelt and Prime Minister King made an executive agreement to build the joint hydro and navigation works, but this too failed to receive the assent of Congress.

By 1918 it became part of the newly formed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, and remained so until 1941, apart from a brief period of six months in 1920 when Skopje was controlled by the Yugoslav Communist Party.

By the end of 1941, Roosevelt had appointed seven justices and elevated Harlan Fiske Stone to Chief Justice.

By late 1941, the Army Research Center at Peenemünde possessed the technologies essential to the success of the A-4.

By November 1941, it was becoming known in the upper reaches of the Nazi leadership and government offices that Hitler intended all the Jews of Europe to be deported to the eastern territories and executed by whatever means.

* Robert A. Heinlein's By His Bootstraps ( 1941 ) features a plot in which a man interacts with different older versions of himself that travel by way of a " Time Gate ", with all the interactions revisited later in the story from the perspective of the now-older man, everything being tied together in a completely self-consistent way.

By the end of 1941, Germany occupied a large part of Europe and its military forces were fighting the Soviet Union, nearly capturing Moscow.

By 1941 the Italians had suffered defeats in Greece and against the British in Egypt.

By 1941 he was earning a good wage, enough to pay for music lessons with Alberto Ginastera, an eminent Argentine composer of classical music.

By 1941, the SD had been organized into the following sections:

By 1941, a rail tunnel was constructed as well.

By the 15th century there is evidence for the renewed use of lidded cementation crucibles at Zwickau in Germany.

Zinc metal was also becoming more commonplace By 1513 metallic zinc ingots from India and China were arriving in London and pellets of zinc condensed in furnace flues at the Rammelsberg in Germany were exploited for cementation brass making from around 1550.

By 1559 the Germany city of Aachen alone was capable of producing 300, 000 cwt of brass per year.

By the summer of 1944 the reversal of fortune was complete and Operation Bagration saw Soviet forces inflict crushing defeats on Germany through the aggressive use of armour, infantry and air power in combined strategic assault, known as deep operations.

By Dr. Patrick E McGovern, University of Pennsylvania archaeochemist and colleagues from China, Great Britain and Germany.

By contrast, the Fascist and Nazi regimes of Italy and Germany tended to confine their coercive activities to purely political aims, without any serious attempt to force the ideological conversion of their opponents.

By the terms of the agreement, the election of bishops and abbots in Germany was to take place in the emperor's presence as judge between potentially disputing parties, free of bribes, thus retaining to the emperor a crucial role in choosing these great territorial magnates of the Empire.

By the twelfth century great churches in Germany, like those elsewhere were finding it difficult to hold out against the accumulation of lay custom and lay objections to temporary inheritance.

By 1991 the communist governments of Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland and Romania, all of which had been imposed after World War II, were brought down as revolution swept Eastern Europe.

By 1994, only its operations in Germany and the United Kingdom were still profitable.

By mid-1947, as East-West tensions over economic recovery in Germany and the Greek Civil War escalated, Eisenhower gave up his hopes for cooperation with the Soviets and agreed with a containment policy to stop Soviet expansion.

By 1943, after Italy faced multiple military failures, complete reliance and subordination of Italy to Germany, and Allied invasion of Italy, and corresponding international humiliation, Mussolini was removed as head of government and arrested by the order of King Victor Emmanuel III who proceeded to dismantle the Fascist state and declared Italy's switching of allegiance to the Allied side.

By that time the military and strategic situation of Russia had become more difficult due of the rise of Germany and Japan, and Russian central administration and the idea of Pan-Slavism had grown in Saint Petersburg.

By the beginning of the Civil War, Austria-Hungary, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland had recognized Finnish independence.

By 1850 the German states were catching up, and by 1900 Germany was a world leader in industrialization, along with Britain and the United States.

By contrast, East Germany renounced ties to the Nazi past, styling itself the " anti-fascist rampart " and proclaiming itself the first socialist state on German soil.

By AD 100, the time of Tacitus's Germania, Germanic tribes settled along the Roman frontier at the Rhine and the Danube ( the Limes Germanicus ), occupying most of the area of modern Germany ; however, Austria, southern Bavaria, and the western Rhineland were Roman provinces.

By 1900 Germany was a world leader in industrialization, along with Britain and the United States.

By 1880, Germany had 9, 400 locomotives pulling 43, 000 passengers and 30, 000 tons of freight a day, and forged ahead of France.

By defeating Russia in 1917 Germany was able to bring hundreds of thousands of combat troops from the east to the Western Front, giving it a numerical advantage over the Allies.

By late 1944, the United States, Canada, France, and Great Britain were closing in on Germany in the West, while the Soviets were closing from the East.

By 2010 there were about 4 million people of Turkish descent in Germany.

* By late 1923, the Weimar Republic of Germany was issuing two-trillion Mark banknotes and postage stamps with a face value of fifty billion Mark.

By the 19th century, there existed similar games of håndbold from Denmark, házená in the Czech Republic, hádzaná in Slovakia, gandbol in Ukraine, and torball in Germany.

By the time of Frederick's death in 1250, little centralized power remained in Germany.