In George Berkeley's A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge of 1710, he argued that a " naked thought " cannot exist, and that a perception was a thought ; therefore only minds could be proven to exist, since all else was merely an idea conveyed by a perception.

In 2002, O ' Donohue launched a court action that argued the Act of Settlement violates the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, but the case was dismissed by the court, which found that, as the Act of Settlement is part of the Canadian constitution, the Charter of Rights and Freedoms does not have supremacy over it.

" For example, James Madison argued for a constitutional republic with protections for individual liberty over a pure democracy, reasoning that, in a pure democracy, a " common passion or interest will, in almost every case, be felt by a majority of the whole ... and there is nothing to check the inducements to sacrifice the weaker party ...."

In making their case, the council fathers argued that tradition had accorded " honor " to the see of older Rome because it was the first imperial city.

Nevertheless, the case for support of the contras continued to be made in Washington, D. C. by both the Reagan administration and the Heritage Foundation, which argued that support for the contras would counter Soviet influence in Nicaragua.

Wittgenstein argued that for some terms this is not the case.

In contrast, patient testimonials, case reports, and even expert opinion ( however some critics have argued that expert opinion " does not belong in the rankings of the quality of empirical evidence because it does not represent a form of empirical evidence " and continue that " expert opinion would seem to be a separate, complex type of knowledge that would not fit into hierarchies otherwise limited to empirical evidence alone.

For the case of power-of-two, Papadimitriou ( 1979 ) argued that the number of complex-number additions achieved by Cooley – Tukey algorithms is optimal under certain assumptions on the graph of the algorithm ( his assumptions imply, among other things, that no additive identities in the roots of unity are exploited ).

Instead, they argued that the resolution simply declared what the Assembly's powers already were, according to the UN Charter, in the case of a dead-locked Security Council.

John Sheppard, in his analysis of dreams titled On Dreams ( 1847 ), lamented Coleridge's drug use as getting in the way of his poetry but argued: " It is probable, since he writes of having taken an ' anodyne ,' that the ' vision in a dream ' arose under some excitement of that same narcotic ; but this does not destroy, even as to his particular case, the evidence for a wonderfully inventive action of the mind in sleep ; for, whatever were the exciting cause, the fact remains the same ".

In the same year as Radley, George Watson argued that " The case of ' Kubla Khan ' is perhaps the strangest of all – a poem that stands high even in English poetry as a work of ordered perfection is offered by the poet himself, nearly twenty years after its composition, as a fragment.

In opposition to the German submissions, the United States argued that the Vienna Convention did not grant rights to individuals, only to states ; that the convention was meant to be exercised subject to the laws of each state party, which in the case of the United States meant subject to the doctrine of procedural default ; and that Germany was seeking to turn the ICJ into an international court of criminal appeal.

He argued that bureaucratic political and economic systems emerging in the Middle Ages were essential in the rise of modern capitalism ( including rational book-keeping and organization of formally free labour ), while they were a hindrance in the case of ancient capitalism, which had a different social and political structure based on conquest, slavery, and the coastal city-state.

The alternative source of Norfolk Island for these, ( or in the case of flax and hemp, similar ) supplies is argued by some historians, notably Geoffrey Blainey in Tyranny of Distance, as being a major reason for the founding of the convict settlement of New South Wales by the First Fleet in 1788.

Francis Bacon argued the case for what would become modern science which would be based more upon real experience and experimentation, free from assumptions about metaphysics, and aimed at increasing control of nature.

In response, philosophers Douglas Rasmussen and Douglas Den Uyl have argued that Nozick misstated Rand's case.

The case of the Imam was argued at the United Nations as well, but no significant measures were taken.

In this case, all possibly created entities are said to be literally a part of the omniscient being's own mind, and thus making all things argued to be other than itself as self-imagined and projected non-entities.

He argued that since the testimony of a woman could not be admitted in Rabbinical court, there were no valid witnesses against him, and hence the case for his expulsion had to be thrown out for lack of evidence.

The 2003 invasion of Iraq led to a significant anti-war movement in which socialists argued their case.

But life, Gould argued, can easily adapt towards simplification, as is often the case with parasites.

Heavily influenced by Gramsci, Nicos Poulantzas, a Greek neo-Marxist theorist argued that capitalist states do not always act on behalf of the ruling class, and when they do, it is not necessarily the case because state officials consciously strive to do so, but because the ' structural ' position of the state is configured in such a way to ensure that the long-term interests of capital are always dominant.

It has been argued that because Snowball Earth would undoubtedly have decimated the population size of any given species, the extremely small populations that resulted would all have been descended from a small number of individuals ( see founder effect ), and consequently the average relatedness between any two individuals ( in this case individual cells ) would have been exceptionally high as a result of glaciations.

In this case, a science teacher argued that, by requiring him to teach evolution, his school district was forcing him to teach the " religion " of secular humanism.

As argued by Tony Crosland and others, the capacity to tax income from capital is a central element of the social democratic case for a mixed economy as against Marxist arguments for comprehensive public ownership of capital.

Moore argued that once arguments based on the naturalistic fallacy had been discarded, questions of intrinsic goodness could only be settled by appeal to what he ( following Sidgwick ) called " moral intuitions :" self-evident propositions which recommend themselves to moral reflection, but which are not susceptible to either direct proof or disproof ( PE § 45 ).

Moore argued that hedonists commit the naturalistic fallacy.

In the 20th century, Princeton University professor Peter Singer argued that Bentham's conclusion is often dismissed by an appeal to a distinction that condemns human suffering but allows non-human suffering, typically " appeals " that are logical fallacies ( unless the distinction is factual, in which case the appeal is just one logical fallacy petitio principii ).

G. E. Moore published his Principia Ethica in 1903 and argued that the attempts of ethical naturalists to translate ethical terms ( like good and bad ) into non-ethical ones ( like pleasing and displeasing ) committed the " naturalistic fallacy ".

It's worth noting that while Nabrit's argument in Bolling rested on the unconstitutionality of segregation, the much more famous Brown v. Board of Education ( decided on the same day ) argued that the idea of ' separate but equal ' facilities mandated by Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U. S. 537 ( 1896 ) was a fallacy as the facilities for black students were woefully inadequate.

In a similar vein, G. E. Moore argued ( with his open question argument ) that the notion good is indefinable, and any attempts to analyze it in naturalistic or metaphysical terms are guilty of the so-called " naturalistic fallacy ".

There is another version on the origin of Holy Crown, which is a popular fallacy: Thietmar von Merseburg ( died in 1018 ) reports that Otto III of the Holy Roman Empire has consented to the coronation of St. Stephen, and the Pope is sending his blessings ; so many historians argued he has also sent a crown, however, does not report on any crown, so it cannot follow any fact.

More recently Kahneman has argued that the conjunction fallacy is a type of extension neglect

Richard Nisbett has argued that some attributional biases like the fundamental attribution error are instances of the base rate fallacy: people underutilize " consensus information " ( the " base rate ") about how others behaved in similar situations and instead prefer simpler dispositional attributions.

Anthropologist Thomas Hylland Eriksen argued that most of Pinker's arguments were flawed since they employed a strawman fallacy argumentation style, and selectively picked supporting evidence as well as foils.

And it is clearly argued by Lord Percy of Newcastle, in his remarkable long essay, The Heresy Of Democracy, and in a more general way by Voegelin, in his New Science Of Politics, that this same Rousseauan idea, descending through European democracy, is the source of Marx's theory of the dictatorship of the proletariat.

In a small way this is illustrated by the nineteenth-century novelist who argued for the powerful influence of literature as a teacher of society and who illustrated this with the way a girl learned to meet her lover, how to behave, how to think about this new experience, how to exercise restraint.

When all else fails, it is argued that open sessions slow down governmental operations.

Taking account of the fact that such a move on our part would be unpopular in world opinion, he argued that the responsibility of the United States is `` to do, confidently and firmly, not what is popular, but what is right ''.

Of course, it can be argued that an ability to write English correctly and with some degree of elegance is a marketable skill.

It could be argued that any fellowship which centers in residential neighborhoods is doomed to become an expression of the panic for stable identity among the middle classes.

Cox argued that the bill is `` probably unconstitutional '' since, he said, it would impair contracts.

Attorney Dwight L. Schwab, in behalf of defendant Philip Weinstein, argued there is no evidence linking Weinstein to the conspiracy, but Judge Powell declared this is a matter for the jury to decide.

After Cuba and Laos, it was argued, Mr. Khrushchev will interpret the President's consent to the meeting as further evidence of Western weakness -- perhaps even panic -- and is certain to try to exploit the advantage he now believes he holds.

The real reason for his rejection, they argued, is the fact that Georgia law automatically cuts off funds for any desegregated school.

Thomas Jay Oord has argued in several books that altruism is but one possible form of love.

Martin Heidegger argued that the relation between the subject and object is ambiguous, as is the relation of mind and body, and part and whole.

Recently, Corey Anton has argued that we cannot be certain what is separate from or unified with something else: language, he asserts, divides what is not in fact separate.

Korzybski's work argued that human knowledge of the world is limited both by the human nervous system and by the structure of language.

This is to avoid the notion that a writing system that represents sounds must be either a syllabary or an alphabet, which implies that a system like Aramaic must be either a syllabary ( as argued by Gelb ) or an incomplete or deficient alphabet ( as most other writers have said ); rather, it is a different type.

The Platonist seemed to outweigh the Aristotelian in Alan, but he felt strongly that the divine is all intelligibility and argued this notion through much Aristotelian logic combined with Pythagorean mathematics.

A related argument is from conscience ; John Henry Newman argued that the conscience supports the claim that objective moral truths exist because it drives people to act morally even when it is not in their own interest.