In the 13th century, Ibn al-Nafis wrote his own novel Fadil ibn Natiq, known as Theologus Autodidactus in the West, as a critical response to Hayy ibn Yaqdhan.

He was followed by Ibn al-Nafis and Hegel with their philosophy of history, and, some such as the author Albert Camus in ' The Rebel ' and J. G.

A similar Islamic theological novel, Theologus Autodidactus, was written by the Arab theologian and physician Ibn al-Nafis in the 13th century.

As the title, Doubts on Galen by Rhazes implies, as well as the writings of physicians such as Ibn Zuhr ( Avenzoar ) and Ibn al-Nafis, the works of Galen were not accepted unquestioningly, but as a challengeable basis for further inquiry.

A strong emphasis on experimentation and empiricism led to new results and new observations, which were contrasted and combined with those of Galen by writers such as Rhazes, Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi ( Haly Abbas ), Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi ( Abulasis ), Ibn Sina ( Avicenna ), Ibn Zuhr and Ibn al-Nafis.

For example, the experiments carried out by Rāzi and Ibn Zuhr contradicted the Galenic theory of humorism, while Ibn al-Nafis ' discovery of the pulmonary circulation contradicted the Galenic theory on the heart.

In 1242 Ibn al-Nafis gave the first description of pulmonary circulation and coronary circulation.

Independently from Ibn al-Nafis, Michael Servetus rediscovered the pulmonary circulation, but this discovery did not reach the public cause it was written down for the first time in the " Manuscript of Paris " in 1546, and later published in the theological work which he paid with his life in 1553.

Ibn al-Nafis dealt with Islamic eschatology in some depth in his Theologus Autodidactus, where he rationalized the Islamic view of eschatology using reason, science, and philosophy to explain the events that would occur according to Islamic eschatology.

As a means of understanding the world through speculation and storytelling, science fiction has antecedents back to mythology, though precursors to science fiction as literature can be seen in Lucian's True History in the 2nd century, some of the Arabian Nights tales, The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter in the 10th century and Ibn al-Nafis ' Theologus Autodidactus in the 13th century.

Many of these early polymaths were also religious priests and theologians: for example, Alhazen and al-Biruni were mutakallimiin ; the physician Avicenna was a hafiz ; the physician Ibn al-Nafis was a hafiz, muhaddith and ulema ; the botanist Otto Brunfels was a theologian and historian of Protestantism ; the astronomer and physician Nicolaus Copernicus was a priest.

Arabic scholar Ibn al-Nafis had disputed aspects of Galen's views, providing a model that seems to imply a form of pulmonary circulation in his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon ( 1242 ).

Ibn al-Nafis, in The Polished Book on Experimental Ophthalmology, discovered that the muscle behind the eyeball does not support the ophthalmic nerve, and that the optic nerves transect but do not get in touch with each other.

Ibn al-Nafis theorized a " premonition of the capillary circulation in his assertion that the pulmonary vein receives what comes out of the pulmonary artery, this being the reason for the existence of perceptible passages between the two.

In 1242, the Arabian physician, Ibn al-Nafis, became the first person to accurately describe the process of pulmonary circulation, for which he is sometimes considered the father of circulatory physiology.

Ibn al-Nafis stated in his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon:

In addition, Ibn al-Nafis had an insight into what would become a larger theory of the capillary circulation.

Ibn al-Nafis ' theory, however, was confined to blood transit in the lungs and did not extend to the entire body.

This is a conceptual leap that was quite different from Ibn al-Nafis ' refinement of the anatomy and bloodflow in the heart and lungs.

* 1242 — Ibn al-Nafis publishes his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon, in which he discovers the pulmonary circulation and coronary circulation, which form the basis of the circulatory system.

Ibn Tufail ( Abubacer ) and Ibn al-Nafis were pioneers of the philosophical novel.

Biruni's tradition of comparative cross-cultural study continued in the Muslim world through to Ibn Khaldun's work in the fourteenth century.

( Ibn Sina's major work on philosophy.

** This is a distinguished work which stands out from, and above, many of the books and articles which have ben written in this century on Avicenna ( Ibn Sīnā ) ( A. D. 980 – 1037 ).

He compiled a survey of mirror configurations in his work on remarkable mechanical devices which was known to Arab mathematicians such as Ibn al-Haytham.

Notable works include Abu Bakr al-Razi's encyclopedia of science, the Mutazilite Al-Kindi's prolific output of 270 books, and Ibn Sina's medical encyclopedia, which was a standard reference work for centuries.

Arabic grammar emerged from the 8th century with the work of Ibn Abi Ishaq and his students.

Also academics note that since much of what is known about Manichaeism comes from later 10th and 11th Century CE Islamic historians like Al-Biruni and especially the Shia Muslim Persian historian Ibn al-Nadim ( and his work Fihrist ); " Islamic authors ascribed to Mani the claim to be the Seal of the Prophets " This topic is discussed by an Israeli academic Guy G. Stroumsa

According to Stephen Suleyman Schwartz, in his book " The Two Faces of Islam ", “ some say that during this vagabondage Ibn Abdul Wahhab came into contact with certain Englishmen who encouraged him to personal ambition as well as to a critical attitude about Islam .” Specifically, Mir ’ at al Harramin, a Turkish work by Ayyub Sabri Pasha, written in 1888, states that in Basra, Abdul Wahhab had come into contact with a British spy by the name of Hempher, who “ inspired in him the tricks and lies that he had learned from the British Ministry of the Commonwealth .”

Making pasta ; illustration from the 15th century edition of Tacuinum Sanitatis, a Latin translation of the Arabic work Taqwīm al-sihha by Ibn Butlan.

Averroes's aptitude for medicine was noted by his contemporaries and can be seen in his major enduring work Kitab al-Kulyat fi al-Tibb ( Generalities ) the work was influenced by the Kitab al-Taisir fi al-Mudawat wa al-Tadbir ( Particularities ) of Ibn Zuhr.

Ibn Rushd defined and measured force as " the rate at which work is done in changing the kinetic condition of a material body " and correctly argued " that the effect and measure of force is change in the kinetic condition of a materially resistant mass ".

* c. 1225 — Ibn al-Baitar, al-Nabati's student, writes his Kitab al-Jami fi al-Adwiya al-Mufrada, a botanical and pharmaceutical encyclopedia describing 1, 400 plants, foods, and drugs, 300 of which are his own original discoveries ; a later Latin translation of his work is useful to European biologists and pharmacists in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Maaseh Hoshev is sometimes mistakenly referred to as Sefer Hamispar ( The Book of Number ), which is an earlier and less sophisticated work by Rabbi Abraham ben Meir Ibn Ezra ( 1090 – 1167 ).

In this city ( like Ibn Sina ) he accomplished most of his work

A Latin translation of Ibn Tufail's work, Philosophus Autodidactus, first appeared in 1671, prepared by Edward Pococke the Younger, followed by an English translation by Simon Ockley in 1708, as well as German and Dutch translations.

This book is Ibn Sina ’ s major work on science and philosophy.

This account, more rich in detail than the Mozarabic Chronicle, is at odds with not only the later Latin histories, but also the later Arabic ones: the anonymous compilation called the Akhbar Majmu ' ah, the late tenth-century work of Ibn al-Qūṭiyya (" the son descendant of the Goth Wittiza "), the eleventh-century historian Ibn Hayyān, the thirteenth-century Complete History of Ibn al-Athir, the fourteenth-century history of Ibn Khaldūn, or the early modern work of al-Maqqarī.

In philosophy and the humanities, Jacques Derrida, the father of deconstruction, was born in El Biar in Algiers ; Malek Bennabi and Frantz Fanon are noted for their thoughts on decolonization ; Augustine of Hippo was born in Tagaste ( modern-day Souk Ahras ); and Ibn Khaldun, though born in Tunis, wrote the Muqaddima while staying in Algeria.

Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Sīnā ( Persian پور سينا Pur-e Sina " son of Sina "; c. 980 – 1037 ), commonly known as Ibn Sīnā or by his Latinized name Avicenna, was a Persian polymath, who wrote almost 450 treatises on a wide range of subjects, of which around 240 have survived.

A novel called Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, based on Avicenna's story, was later written by Ibn Tufail ( Abubacer ) in the 12th century and translated into Latin and English as Philosophus Autodidactus in the 17th and 18th centuries respectively.

However, the rule of the dynasty was relatively short-lived and the Almoravids fell-at the height of their power-when they failed to quell the Masmuda-led rebellion initiated by Ibn Tumart.

Writing three centuries later, Ibn Abi Zar suggested it was chosen early on by Abdallah Ibn Yasin because, upon finding resistance among the Gudala Berbers of Adrar ( Mauritania ) to his teaching, he took a handful of followers to erect a makeshift ribat ( monastery-fortress ) on an offshore island ( possibly Tidra island, in Arguin bay ).

Ibn Idhari wrote that the name was suggested by Ibn Yasin in the " persevering in the fight " sense, to boost morale after a particularly hard-fought battle in the Draa valley c. 1054, in which they had taken many losses.

The 13th-century Moroccan biographer Ibn al-Zayyat al-Tadili and Qadi Ayyad before him in the 12th-century, note that Waggag's learning center was called Dar al-Murabitin ( The house of the Almoravids ), and that might have inspired Ibn Yasin's choice of name for the movement.

Ibn Yasin certainly had the ardor of a puritan zealot, his creed was mainly characterized by a rigid formalism and a strict adherence to the dictates of the Qur ' an, and the Orthodox tradition.

( chroniclers like al-Bakri allege Ibn Yasin's own learning was superficial.

Probably sensing the useful organizing power of Ibn Yasin's pious fervor, he was invited by the Lamtuna chieftain Yahya ibn Umar al-Lamtuni to preach to his people.

Invoking stories of the early life of the Prophet Muhammad, Ibn Yasin preached that conquest was a necessary addendum to Islamicization, that it was not enough to merely adhere to God's law, but necessary to also destroy opposition to it.

Omari came from Asir Province, a poor region in southwestern Saudi Arabia that borders Yemen, and graduated with honours from high school, attained a degree from the Imam Muhammad Ibn Saud Islamic University, was married, and had a daughter.

Upon landing in al-Andalus, Abd al-Rahman was greeted by clients Abu Uthman and Ibn Khalid and an escort of 300 cavalry.

When the latter was surrounded by Umayyad troops, he sued for help to Ibn Hafsun, but the latter was defeated by the besiegers and returned to Bobastro.

Ibn al-Mundir al-Qurays, a member of the royal family, was named governor of the city, while the Lord of Carmona obtained the title of vizier.

Abd ar-Rahman's next objective was to squash the longstanding rebellion of Ibn Hafsun.

The last of Ibn Hafsun to fall was Hafs, who stood in his powerful fortress of Bobastro.

The Algarve was dominated completely by a muladí coalition led by Sa ' id ibn Mal, who had expelled the Arabs from Beja, and the lords of Ocsónoba, Yahya ibn Bakr, and of Niebla, Ibn Ufayr.