Intellectual historian Peter Watson has summarized this period as the foundation of many of humanity's most influential philosophical traditions, including monotheism in Persia and Canaan, Platonism in Greece, Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism in India, and Confucianism and Taoism in China.

The historian of the famous retreat of the Ten Thousand, 401 BC, relates that the Greeks suffered severely from the slingers in the army of Artaxerxes II of Persia, while they themselves had neither cavalry nor slingers, and were unable to reach the enemy with their arrows and javelins.

The fourth century Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus ( 325 / 330 – after 391 ) said, “ From there ( Harran ) two different royal highways lead to Persia: the one on the left through Adiabene and over the Tigris ; the one on the right, through Assyria and across the Euphrates .” Not only did Harran have easy access to both the Assyrian and Babylonian roads, but also to north road to the Euphrates that provided easy access to Malatiyah and Asia Minor.

Ammianus Marcellinus, a noted Roman historian and general who served in the army of Constantius II in Gaul and Persia and fought against the Sassanid army under Julian the Apostate, described the sight of a contingent of massed Persian cataphracts in the 4th century:

Muslim scholar Fadwa El Guindi observes that the Achaemenid rulers of Persia were reported by the Greco-Roman historian Plutarch to have hidden their wives and concubines from public gaze.

The 16th century Persian historian, Ferishta, records Sebuktigin's genealogy as descended from the Sassanid emperors: " Subooktu-geen, the son of Jookan, the son of Kuzil-Hukum, the son of Kuzil-Arslan, the son of Ferooz, the son of Yezdijird, king of Persia.

According to Bill Wall, in 947 in a history of chess in India and Persia, the Arabic historian Ali al-Masudi described six different variants of chess, including astrological chess, circular chess and cylinder chess.

Russian envoy to Persia Aleksandr Griboyedov mentioned in his diary a conversation with writer and historian Abbasgulu Bakikhanov, a member of the Russian diplomatic mission at the time, in which the latter told him that Elisabethpol battle was near the Nizami tomb.

The German historian Josef Wiesehöfer comments that the portrayal of Cyrus as a champion of human rights is as illusory as the image of the " humane and enlightened Shah of Persia.

Historian Morris Rossabi calls Rashid-al-Din " arguably the most distinguished figure in Persia during Mongolian rule ".

Aeschylus had written his own epitaph commemorating his life as a warrior fighting for Athens against Persia, without any mention of his success as a playwright, and Sophocles was celebrated by his contemporaries for his social gifts and contributions to public life as a state official, but there are no records of Euripides's public life except as a dramatisthe could well have been " a brooding and bookish recluse ".

His servant, Jauhar, records in the Tadhkirat al-Waqiat that he was known to shoot arrows to the sky marked with either his own name, or that of the Shah of Persia and, depending on how they landed, interpreted this as an indication of which of them would grow more powerful.

* October 22 – Ghiyasu'd-Din Naqqah, an envoy of the embassy sent by the Timurid ruler of Persia, Mirza Shahrukh ( r. 1404 – 1447 ), to the Ming Dynasty of China during the reign of the Yongle Emperor ( r. 1402 – 1424 ), records his sight and travel over a large floating pontoon bridge at Lanzhou ( constructed earlier in 1372 ) as he crosses the Yellow River on this day.

The figures of King Ninus and Queen Semiramis first appear in the history of Persia written by Ctesias of Cnidus ( c. 400 BC ), who claimed, as court physician to Artaxerxes II, to have access to the royal historical records.

Denzil Ibbetson records that " Muhammad bin Qasim maintained these regulations, declaring that the Jats resembled the savages of Persia " According to Wink " While the Jats were also granted ( aman ) a considerable number of Jats were also captured as prisoners of war and deported to Iraq and elsewhere as slaves.

Ferishta records Sebuk Tigin's genealogy as descended from the Sassanid Emperors: " Subooktu-geen, the son of Jookan, the son of Kuzil-Hukum, the son of Kuzil-Arslan, the son of Ferooz, the son of Yezdijird, king of Persia.

Extensive records on the celebration of Nowruz appear following the accession of Ardashir I of Persia, the founder of the Sassanid dynasty ( 224-650 CE ).

Historical and archaeological records attest to Swahilis being prolific maritime merchants and sailors who sailed the East African coastline to lands as far away as Arabia, Persia, Madagascar, India and even China.

Symphonische Dichtungen aus Persien ( Symphonic Poems from Persia ) is the name of 3 gramophone records recorded with Nuremberg Symphony Orchestra in 1980 conducted by Ali Rahbari.

Kotlyarevsky defeated the numerically superior Persian army in the Battle of Aslanduz and in October, 1813, Persia was compelled to make a disadvantageous peace, ceding some territory in the Caucasus ( present-day Georgia, Dagestan, and most of the Republic of Azerbaijan ).

He gained some victories during the war 1821 war between the Ottoman Empire and Persia, resulting in a peace treaty signed in 1823 after the Battle of Erzurum.

The name of the gulf, historically and internationally known as the Persian Gulf after the land of Persia ( Iran ), has been disputed by some Arab countries since the 1960s.

During his reign, Abraha repaired the Marib Dam in 543, and received embassies from Persia and Byzantium, including a request to free some bishops who had been imprisoned at Nisbis ( according to John of Epheseus's Life of Simeon ).

Leopards have been known to humans throughout history, and have featured in the art, mythology, and folklore of many countries where they have historically occurred, such as ancient Greece, Persia, and Rome, as well as some where they have not existed for several millennia, such as England.

In early 1502 ( some say as early as 1500 ), Vasco da Gama was awarded the title of Almirante dos mares de Arabia, Persia, India e de todo o Oriente (" Admiral of the Seas of Arabia, Persia, India and all the Orient ")-an overwrought title reminiscent of the ornate Castilian title borne by Christopher Columbus.

It has been alleged that some of Lactantius ' account is motivated by his desire to establish that persecutors of the Christians died fitting deaths ; the story was repeated then and later by authors in the Roman Near East fiercely hostile to Persia.

Records show that by the 9th century a similar utensil known as a barjyn was in limited use in Persia within some elite circles.

Over time, a great variety of religions developed around the world, with Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism in India, Zoroastrianism in Persia being some of the earliest major faiths.

The Dutch also employed Han to farm sugarcane and rice for export, some of these rice and sugarcane products reached as far as the markets of Persia.

While some propose that encounters with the Islamic shamshir inspired its creation, these " scimitars " of Persia were not developed until long after the falchion.

The two types, κάρδαμομον and ἄμωμον were distinguished in the fourth century BCE by the Greek father of botany, Theophrastus, some of whose informants told him they came to Greece from the land of the Medes in northern Persia, while others were aware it came originally from India.

Written between the 450s and 420s BC, the scope of Herodotus ' work reaches about a century into the past, discussing 6th-century historical figures such as Darius I of Persia, Cambyses II and Psamtik III, and alludes to some 8th-century ones such as Candaules.

Conversely, Eldad ha-Dani argued that the tribe of Simeon had become quite powerful, taking tribute from 25 other kingdoms, some of which were Arabians ; though he names their location, surviving versions of his manuscripts differ as to whether it was the land of the Khazars or of the Chaldeans-Chaldeans would be an anachronism, though it could possibly refer to Buyid Dynasty Persia.

On his death, the " false Smerdis ," an imposter, occupied the throne for some seven or eight months, and then Darius I of Persia became king ( 522 BCE ).

* The Persians, unnerved by some of Athens ' actions, including supporting King Evagoras of Cyprus and Pharaoh Hakor of Egypt ( both of whom are at war with Persia ), decide that their policy of weakening Sparta by supporting its enemies is no longer wise.

The cantaloupe originated in Persia, India and Africa ; it was first cultivated in Iran some 5000 years ago and in Greece and Egypt some 4000 years ago.

Shiraz, which has been built in the 8th century some 50 km from the ancient site of Persepolis, had become the centre of Persia ’ s medieval and early modern wine trade.

The bearers of the Pazyryk culture were horse-riding pastoral nomads of the steppe, and some may have accumulated great wealth through horse trading with merchants in Persia, India and China.

According to some sources, after his recognition Aemilian wrote to the Senate, promising to fight for the Empire in Thrace and against Persia, and to relinquish his power to the Senate, of which he considered himself a general.

According to some accounts, his grandfather was descended from a line of Muslims tracing their lineage back to Persia, while another traces his lineage instead to the area of present-day Afghanistan.

In the ancient world, particularly in the ancient near-east ( Israel, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Persia ) names were thought to be extremely powerful and to act, in some ways, as a separate manifestation of a person or deity.

The practice of palmistry has been used in the cultures of India, Tibet, China, Persia, and some countries in Europe.