* Entropy ( classical thermodynamics )

In the light of thermodynamics, the classical calorimetric quantity is revealed as being tightly linked to the calorimetric material's equation of state.

Many results in classical thermodynamics are not easily applied to non-equilibrium systems.

In classical thermodynamics, the concept of entropy is defined phenomenologically by the second law of thermodynamics, which states that the entropy of an isolated system always increases or remains constant.

Alternatively entropy can be defined from a classical thermodynamics viewpoint, in which the molecular interactions are not considered and instead the system is viewed from perspective of the gross motion of very large masses of molecules and the behavior of individual molecules is averaged and obscured.

Historically, the classical thermodynamics definition developed first, and it has more recently been extended in the area of non-equilibrium thermodynamics.

The undergraduate physics curriculum generally includes the following range of courses: chemistry, classical physics, kinematics, astronomy and astrophysics, physics laboratory, electricity and magnetism, thermodynamics, optics, modern physics, quantum physics, nuclear physics, particle physics, and solid state physics.

However, classical thermodynamics is mostly concerned with systems in equilibrium and reversible changes and not what actually does happen, or how fast, away from equilibrium.

Statistical mechanics provides a framework for relating the microscopic properties of individual atoms and molecules to the macroscopic bulk properties of materials that can be observed in everyday life, therefore explaining thermodynamics as a result of classical and quantum-mechanical description of statistics and mechanics at the microscopic level.

This ability to make macroscopic predictions based on microscopic properties is the main advantage of statistical mechanics over classical thermodynamics.

Statistical mechanics provides a framework for relating the microscopic properties of individual atoms and molecules to the macroscopic or bulk properties of materials that can be observed in everyday life, therefore explaining thermodynamics as a natural result of statistics, classical mechanics, and quantum mechanics at the microscopic level.

For example, classical thermodynamics is characterized by its study of materials that have equations of state or characteristic equations.

As classical thermodynamics developed, the distinction between heat and work became less central.

For example, classical thermodynamics can consider long-time-average rates of flows generated by continually repeated irreversible cyclic processes.

That particular way of definition of entropy is largely beyond the scope of the present article, but here it may be said that it is entirely derived from the concepts of classical thermodynamics ; in particular, neither flow rates nor changes over time are admitted into the definition of the entropy of the small local region.

The independent state variables of a small local region are only those of classical thermodynamics.

Generalized or extended thermodynamics is a diverse and developing project, rather than a more or less completed subject such as is classical thermodynamics.

For generalized or extended thermodynamics, the definition of the quantity known as the entropy of a small local region is in terms beyond those of classical thermodynamics ; in particular, flow rates are admitted into the definition of the entropy of a small local region.

Outside the range of classical thermodynamics, the definition of the entropy of a small local region is no simple matter.

It provides an explanation of classical thermodynamics.

The second noteworthy characteristic is that the country borders on very different parts of the African continent: North Africa, with its Islamic culture and economic orientation toward the Mediterranean Basin ; West Africa, with its diverse religions and cultures and its history of highly developed states and regional economies ; Northeast Africa, oriented toward the Nile Valley and Red Sea region ; and Central or Equatorial Africa, some of whose people have retained classical African religions while others have adopted Christianity, and whose economies were part of the great Congo River system.

In 1809 Latrobe invented a second American order, employing magnolia flowers constrained within the profile of classical mouldings, as his drawing demonstrates.

The scope of classical control theory is limited to single-input and single-output ( SISO ) system design, except when analyzing for disturbance rejection using a second input.

He suggests at some points that the pagan deities are based on humans, but at others that they are misanthropic demons, and he cites several classical sources in support of this second hypothesis.

Classics writer Simone Weil ranked the conduct of the Gracchi second out of all the known cases of good hearted conduct recorded by history for classical Rome, ahead of the Scipios and Virgil.

A second classical distinction is between the Written Torah ( laws written in the Hebrew Bible, specifically its first five books ), and Oral Law, laws believed transmitted orally prior to compilation in texts such as the Mishnah, Talmud, and Rabbinic codes.

In England, Italian became the second most common modern language to be learned, after French ( though the classical languages, Latin and Greek, came first ).

Julius and Claudius were two Roman family names ; in classical Latin, they came second.

In classical logic, the law of non-contradiction ( LNC ) ( or the law of contradiction ( PM ) or the principle of non-contradiction ( PNC ), or the principle of contradiction ) is the second of the three classic laws of thought.

Most commentators assume that this referred to their " slippery " effect on meter in classical Greek verse when they occur as the second member of a consonant cluster.

A second strand of Kaplanian theology exists, which makes clear that God has ontological reality, a real and absolute existence independent of human beliefs, while rejecting classical theism and any belief in miracles.

There is a classical analogue to the quantum no-cloning theorem, which we might state as follows: given only the result of one flip of a ( possibly biased ) coin, we cannot simulate a second, independent toss of the same coin.

It became the second most important oracle in ancient Greece, which later was dedicated to Zeus and to Heracles during the classical period of Greece. At Dodona Zeus was worshipped as Zeus Naios or Naos ( god of springs Naiads, from a spring which existed under the oak ), and Zeus Bouleos ( cancellor ).

The first is a typical classical orchestra ( i. e. Beethoven / Haydn ), the second is typical of an early / mid-romantic ( i. e. Brahms / Dvořák / Tchaikovsky ), late romantic / early 20th century ( i. e. Wagner / Mahler / Stravinsky ), to the common complement of a present day modern orchestras ( i. e. Adams / Barber / Copland / Glass ).

The Schrödinger equation describes how wavefunctions change in time, playing a role similar to Newton's second law in classical mechanics.

Typically a 10 pulses per second dial is used into a classic Strowger Exchange and a 20 pps dial would be used into a Crossbar or Electronic exchange where line lengths were reasonable and the receiving register was not limited by classical telephone relays, even with the isthmus armature.

It has a common programme for all pupils, and covers all the classical subjects ( Italian language and literature, History, Geography, Mathematics, Natural sciences, English language, a second Foreign Language-usually French, German or Spanish, Technology, Arts, Music, and Physical Education ).

A 56 kbit / s line is a digital connection capable of carrying 56 kilobits per second ( kbit / s ), or 56, 000 bit / s, the data rate of a classical single channel digital telephone line in North America.

As their religious beliefs in the Gospel later deteriorated away from first and second century Christianity, the Goths would become identified again with occultism, paganism and the earlier beliefs associated with their classical spiritual influences.

Strayhorn, with his training in classical music, not only contributed his original lyrics and music, but also arranged and polished many of Ellington's works, becoming a second Ellington or " Duke's doppelganger ".

The second and third volumes did not appear for another eight years, and they surprised readers by their subject matter ( classical Greek and Latin texts ), approach and style, particularly Foucault's focus on the human subject, a concept that some mistakenly believed he had previously neglected.

Eudoxus is considered by some to be the greatest of classical Greek mathematicians, and in all antiquity, second only to Archimedes.