In contemporary polemics, " dialectics " may also refer to an understanding of how we can or should perceive the world ( epistemology ); an assertion that the nature of the world outside one's perception is interconnected, contradictory, and dynamic ( ontology ); or it can refer to a method of presentation of ideas and conclusions ( discourse ).

In recent studies by Muslim contemporary thinkers that aim at ' renewing the impetus of philosophical thinking in Islam ', Nader El-Bizri offers a critical analysis of the conventions of methodology and historiography that dominate the mainstream academic and epistemic approaches in studying ' Islamic philosophy ' from ' archival ' standpoints, within Oriental and Mediaevalist Studies, which fail to recognize the fact that ' philosophy in Islam ' can still be a living intellectual tradition, and that its renewal requires a radical reform in ontology and epistemology within Islamic thought.

Fields of her work and research are: epistemology of historiography and social sciences, historical anthropology, contemporary history from Enlightenment to mid-20th century, transmission and politics of memory / oblivion, intellectual history and cultural transfers in Europe, anti-intellectualism, dimensions of the Dreyfus Affair in Slovenian social Space and in Trieste, mechanisms of social exclusion, anthropology of sex and gender, constitution of ( national and transnational ) literary fields in Europe in 19th and 20th Centuries, studies of province and provincialism as a specific socio-historical phenomenon.

A Gettier problem is any one of a category of thought experiments in contemporary epistemology that seem to repudiate a definition of knowledge as justified true belief ( JTB ).

John L. Pollock and Joseph Cruz have stated that the Gettier problem has " fundamentally altered the character of contemporary epistemology " and has become " a central problem of epistemology since it poses a clear barrier to analyzing knowledge ".

The term Kantianism or Kantian is sometimes also used to describe contemporary positions in philosophy of mind, epistemology, and ethics.

( An original work on epistemology by a contemporary Iranian philosopher drawing critical comparisons between certain Islamic and Western philosophers ; incorporates the best exposition in a Western language of al-Suhrawardi's theory of knowledge.

Virtue epistemology is a contemporary philosophical approach to epistemology that stresses the importance of intellectual ( epistemic ) virtues.

Intellectual virtue has been a subject of philosophy since the works of Plato and Aristotle, but virtue epistemology is a development in the contemporary analytic tradition.

There are two concurrent modes of thought in contemporary virtue epistemology, with one side favoring the reliabilist account, and one favoring a " responsibilist " account in which the epistemic obligations of the agent play a key role.

Her specialties are philosophy of science, epistemology, contemporary pragmatism, and feminist theory.

In contemporary moral philosophy, motivational internalism ( or moral internalism ) is the view that moral convictions ( which are not necessarily beliefs, e. g. feelings of moral approval or disapproval ) are intrinsically motivating.

1 ) Every age rewrites the events of its history in terms of what should have been, creating legends about itself that rationalize contemporary beliefs and excuse contemporary actions.

And in a concluding chapter about America's stance in the contemporary world, one senses certain misplacements of emphasis and a failure to come to grips with the baffling riddle of our time: How to deal with a wily and aggressive enemy without appeasement and without war.

Most of what is said about his great men of history has already been said, and what has not is largely irrelevant to the contemporary scene.

Unlike other contemporary scripts, such as Cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs, the Phoenician script consisted of only about two dozen symbols.

Her second husband, Pere Milà, was a developer who was criticized for his flamboyant lifestyle and ridiculed by the contemporary residents of Barcelona, when they joked about his love of money and opulence, wondering if he was not rather more interested in " the widow ’ s guardiola " ( piggy bank ), than in " Guardiola ’ s widow ".

But Leotychidas was ultimately set aside as illegitimate, contemporary rumors representing him as the son of Alcibiades, and Agesilaus became king around 401 BC, at the age of about forty.

The chief authorities on the career of Alaric are: the historian Orosius and the poet Claudian, both contemporary, neither disinterested ; Zosimus, a historian who lived probably about half a century after Alaric's death ; and Jordanes, a Goth who wrote the history of his nation in 551, basing his work on The Trojan War.

A contemporary report tells that Thorkell the Tall attempted to save Ælfheah from the mob about to kill him by offering them everything he owned except for his ship, in exchange for Ælfheah's life ; Thorkell's presence is not mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, however.

In the book, she also made comparisons of her close gay friends to today's homosexuals, who " jiggle their bottoms, put their little fingers in the air and with their little castrato voices moan about what those ghastly heteros put them through " and that some contemporary homosexuals behave like " fairground freaks ".

Bede is somewhat reticent about the career of Wilfrid, a contemporary and one of the most prominent clerics of his day.

In about 15 BC, the Romans redrew the town as a castrum ( Roman military camp ) centred on the " Mons Taber ", a little hill near the contemporary city hall ( Plaça de Sant Jaume ).

The Bunyip of Berkeley's Creek is a contemporary Australian children's picture book about a bunyip.

* Facts and historical notes about Macedonia and Bulgaria, contemporary historians obejectivism issues, etc.

The informal content of this naive set theory supports both the aspects of mathematical sets familiar in discrete mathematics ( for example Venn diagrams and symbolic reasoning about their Boolean algebra ), and the everyday usage of set theory concepts in most contemporary mathematics.

Latour suggests that about 90 % of contemporary social criticism in academia displays one of two approaches which he terms “ the fact position and the fairy position .” ( p. 237 ) The fact position is anti-fetishist, arguing that “ objects of belief ” ( e. g., religion, arts ) are merely concepts onto which power is projected ; the “ fairy position ” argues that individuals are dominated, often covertly and without their awareness, by external forces ( e. g., economics, gender ).

He relied on his own experiences, contemporary writings about Napoleon, and on historical sources.

Though frank in places, Gaskell was selective about which details she revealed ; she suppressed details of Charlotte's love for Heger, a married man, as being too much of an affront to contemporary morals and source of distress to Charlotte's still-living father, husband and friends.

The city has many nicknames, which reflect the impressions and opinions about historical and contemporary Chicago.

A contemporary of Brian Aldiss and James White, Kapp is best known for his stories about the Unorthodox Engineers.

Despite these complaints, Clement is generally not considered a heretic in the Catholic Church, but such concerns about his orthodoxy led to him being removed from the Roman martyrology in 1586, and he is not revered as a saint in contemporary Roman Catholicism.

Her early and later allegorical and didactic treatises reflect both autobiographical information about her life and views and also her own individualized and humanist approach to the scholastic learned tradition of mythology, legend, and history she inherited from clerical scholars and to the genres and courtly or scholastic subjects of contemporary French and Italian poets she admired.

Diderot's intention in writing the dialogue is disputed ; whether it is merely a satire on contemporary manners, or a reduction of the theory of self-interest to an absurdity, or the application of irony to the ethics of ordinary convention, or a mere setting for a discussion about music, or a vigorous dramatic sketch of a parasite and a human original.

Since the great majority of people who first attempted to transcribe Chinese were not linguists ( and even if they were, the principles of modern phonemics were not discovered for another two centuries ), their endeavour was marred by a lack of systematic approach and many contemporary European misconceptions about language.

Second, libraries have independent concerns about revising legacy Wade – Giles catalogs to contemporary pinyin.

Hegel, in his Elements of the Philosophy of Right ( 1820 ), gave it a philosophical justification that concurred with evolving contemporary political theory and the Protestant Christian view of natural law.

Linguists tend to view prescriptive grammars as having little justification beyond their authors ' aesthetic tastes, although style guides may give useful advice about standard language employment, based on descriptions of usage in contemporary writings of the same language.

The use and meaning of the word " philosophy " has changed throughout history: in Antiquity it encompassed almost any inquiry ; for Descartes it was supposed to be the Queen of the Sciences, a sort of ultimate justification ; in the time of David Hume " metaphysics " and " morals " could be roughly translated as the human sciences ; and contemporary analytic philosophy likes to define itself roughly as inquiry into concepts.

The version created by William Moncrieff ( 1794 – 1857 )-one of contemporary London's most successful dramatists and theatrical managers and a man whose knowledge of London and of its slang equalled Egan's-was praised, not without justification, as ' The Beggar's Opera of its day '.

It is an influential but difficult work that provides a controversial account of empirical justification for beliefs, covering some of the same ground as Hegel's critique of Kant but informed by a deep sensitivity to contemporary modes of scientific naturalism.

* That there was limited justification for contemporary expansions in the scope and duration of copyright.

Many contemporary epistemologists reject the view that evidential support is the whole story about the justification of beliefs.

While Mill admits that these freedoms could — in certain situations — be pushed aside, he claims that in contemporary and civilized societies there is no justification for their removal.