SDI research was cut back following the end of Reagan's presidency, and in 1995 it was reiterated in a presidential joint statement that " missile defense systems may be deployed ... will not pose a realistic threat to the strategic nuclear force of the other side and will not be tested to ... that capability.

After that the National Space-Based Positioning, Navigation and Timing Executive Committee was established by presidential directive in 2004 to advise and coordinate federal departments and agencies on matters concerning the GPS and related systems.

In parliamentary systems, the word " government " is used to refer to what in presidential systems would be the executive branch and to the governing party.

In presidential systems, the term refers to a regularly-scheduled election where both the president, and either " a class " of or all members of the national legislature are elected at the same time.

The older the constitution, the more constitutional leeway tends to exist for a head of state to exercise greater powers over government, as many older parliamentary system constitutions in fact give heads of state powers and functions akin to presidential or semi-presidential systems, in some cases without containing reference to modern democratic principles of accountability to parliament or even to modern governmental offices.

Semi-presidential systems combine features of presidential and parliamentary systems, notably a requirement that the government be answerable to both the president and the legislature.

It is notable that some presidential systems, while not providing for collective executive accountability to the legislature, may require legislative approval for individuals prior to their assumption of cabinet office and empower the legislature to remove a president from office ( for example, in the United States of America ).

Most presidents in such countries are selected by democratic means ( popular direct or indirect election ); however, like all other systems, the presidential model also encompasses people who become head of state by other means, notably through military dictatorship or coup d ' état, as often seen in Latin American, Middle Eastern and other presidential regimes.

In a sense, elected monarchies, such as the Holy See, the defunct Holy Roman Empire or pre 16th century Swedish monarchy, can be regarded as ' crowned ' presidential systems.

In presidential systems the head of state is the actual, de facto chief executive officer.

In presidential systems, such as that of the United States, appointments are nominated by the President's sole discretion, but this nomination is often subject to parliamentary confirmation ( in the case of the US, the Senate has to approve cabinet nominees and judicial appointments by simple majority ).

In presidential systems, the president often has the power to fire ministers at his sole discretion.

Even in presidential systems the head of state often formally reports to the legislature on the present national status, e. g. the State of the Union address in the United States of America.

In some parliamentary systems, and in some presidential systems, however, the head of state may do so on their own initiative.

Typically in presidential and semi-presidential systems the president is directly elected by the people, or is indirectly elected as done in the United States.

For example, it is used in French presidential, legislative, and cantonal elections, and also to elect the presidents of Afghanistan, Argentina, Austria, Brazil, Bulgaria, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cyprus, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, Finland, France, Ghana, Guatemala, India, Indonesia, Liberia, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Senegal, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Timor-Leste, Ukraine, Uruguay, Zimbabwe — see: Table of voting systems by nation.

In democratic systems of governance based on the trias politica, a fundamental parallel and a fundamental difference exists between presidential systems and constitutional monarchic parliamentary system of government.

* In presidential systems, the incumbent of the Head-of-state is elected to office and, after transfer of power, appoints his administration ( like in the United States, with unitary executive ) or a government headed by a prime minister is formed within the parliament, based on the elected majority ( like in France ).

Complete separation-of-powers systems are almost always presidential, although theoretically this need not be the case.

Countries with Congresses and presidential systems:

Fears that the DPP would one day take control of the legislature led then-President Lee Teng-hui to push through a series of amendments to strengthen presidential power ( for example, Taiwan's premier would no longer have to be confirmed by the Legislative Yuan ).

On 19 March, a constitutional referendum was voted on and passed reforming the laws surrounding the power and election of the presidency, limiting the presidency to two four-year terms, providing judicial supervision of elections, requiring the president to appoint a deputy, calling for a commission to draft a new constitution following the parliamentary election, and providing easier access to presidential elections by candidates ( 30, 000 signatures from at least 15 provinces, 30 members of a chamber of the legislature, or nomination by a party holding at least one seat in the legislature ).

Note: The head of state in a " presidential " system may not actually hold the title of " president "-the name of the system refers to any head of state who actually governs and is independent of the legislature.

This system is known as a " presidential system " and sometimes called the " imperial model ", because the executive officials of the government are answerable solely and exclusively to a presiding, acting head of state, and is selected by and on occasion dismissed by the head of state without reference to the legislature.

Some of the characteristics of a presidential system ( i. e., a strong dominant political figure with an executive answerable to them, not the legislature ) can also be found among absolute monarchies, parliamentary monarchies and single party ( e. g. Communist ) regimes, but in most cases of dictatorship, their stated constitutional models are applied in name only and not in political theory or practice.

Under the new constitution, Nasir was elected indirectly to a four-year presidential term by the Majlis ( legislature ).

In the debate on the " tariff of abominations " in 1828, he took no part but voted for the measure in obedience to instructions from the New York legislature, an action which was cited against him as late as during the presidential campaign of 1844.

In August 1967, a new Constitution created the two-house Paraguayan legislature and formally allowed Stroessner to serve for two more five-year presidential terms.

However, in a presidential system, the executive's term may or may not coincide with the legislature's, as their selection is technically independent of the legislature.

Primaries in April decided single presidential candidates for each party, and national elections on October 31 determined representation in the legislature.

In 1880, the Ohio legislature elected him to the U. S. Senate ; in that same year, the leading Republican presidential contenders – Ulysses S. Grant, James G. Blaine and John Sherman – failed to garner the requisite support at their convention.

In a presidential system, according to the separation of powers doctrine, the legislature is considered an independent and coequal branch of government along with both the judiciary and the executive.

The usual model depicts the top bureaucrats as being chosen by the chief executive and legislature, depending on whether the democratic system is presidential or parliamentary.

A party which has gained at least 5 % of the votes at the last presidential or legislature election may nominate a set of candidates.

The meeting of a constitutional loya jirga was held in December 2003, when a new constitution was adopted creating a presidential form of government with a bicameral legislature: the House of Elders ( Meshrano Jirga ) and the House of the People ( Wolesi Jirga ).

The constitution provides for a strong presidential government, a unicameral legislature, an independent judiciary, and the protection of human rights.

George F. Will of the The Washington Post criticized the proposal in an Op-Ed piece, saying that a presidential question time would endanger separation of powers as the President of the United States, unlike the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, is not a member of the legislature.

However, Bush argued that Article II gives the federal judiciary the power to interpret state election law in presidential elections to ensure that the intent of the state legislature is followed.

Unlike in a presidential system of government, the head of state is generally constrained by the cabinet or the legislature in a parliamentary system, and most reserve powers are usable only in certain exceptional circumstances.

The parliament may alter the Constitution of Finland, bring about the resignation of the Council of State, and override presidential vetoes.

The punishment may be the loss of his presidential office and of his eligibility to regain it.

According to the 1999 Constitution of Niger, the President may call a referendum on any matter ( except for a revision of those elements of the Constitution outlined in Article 136 — including the presidential term limits ).

As the country's head of state, in most countries the president is entitled to certain perquisites, and may have a prestigious residence ; often a lavish mansion or palace, sometimes more than one ( e. g. summer and winter residence, country retreat ) – for symbols of office, such as an official uniform, decorations, a presidential seal, coat of arms, flag and other visible accessories ; military honours such as gun salutes, Ruffles and flourishes, and a presidential guard.

Presidents may also grant pardons and reprieves, as is often done just before the end of a presidential term, not without controversy.

Under Section 3 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment, the president may transfer the presidential powers and duties to the vice president, who then becomes acting president, by transmitting a statement to the Speaker of the House and the president pro tempore of the Senate stating the reasons for the transfer.

This transfer of power may occur for any reason the president considers appropriate ; in 2002 and again in 2007, President George W. Bush briefly transferred presidential authority to Vice President Dick Cheney.

Under Section 4 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment, the vice president, in conjunction with a majority of the Cabinet, may transfer the presidential powers and duties from the president to the vice president by transmitting a written declaration to the Speaker of the House and the president pro tempore of the Senate that the president is unable to discharge the presidential powers and duties.

II, § 3, personally and through officers whom he appoints ( save for such inferior officers as Congress may authorize to be appointed by the " Courts of Law " or by " the Heads of Departments " who with other presidential appointees ), Art.

Pursuant to the amendment's Habitation Clause, an elector may not vote for both candidates of a presidential ticket if both candidates inhabit the elector's state.

The body may be dismissed by the president with the concurrence of the Constitutional Court ; because that court is subject to presidential appointment, the dismissal clause weights the balance of power heavily toward the executive branch.

In cases where the presidential nomination is still in doubt as the convention approaches, the campaigns for the two positions may become intertwined.

Harding's legacy began to improve during the 1970s ; however, the truth behind the many presidential scandals and his personal controversies may never be known.

According to The American Political Science Association, over the past 2004 presidential election, the women's vote may have well decided the outcome of the race.

In presidential republics or absolute monarchies, the head of government may be the same person as the head of state, who is often also called a president or a monarch.

While they may through sheer exposure become involved in causes or controversies ( as Paris Hilton did in the US presidential election, 2008 ) it's clearly not correct to label all individually unique talent or economic value as being an " intellectual " asset.