By the middle of the 19th century, industrialisation swept away most of the city's medieval rules of production and commerce, although the entirely corrupt remains of the city's mediæval constitution was kept in place ( compare the famous remarks of Georg Forster in his Ansichten vom Niederrhein ) until 1801, when Aachen became the " chef-lieu du département de la Roer " in Napoléon's First French Empire.

During the same period a movement with similar aims had also developed in France under the direction of Eugène Viollet-le-Duc a French architect and theorist, famous for his " restorations " of medieval buildings.

Conversely the use of true brass seems to have declined in Western Europe during this period in favour of gunmetals and other mixed alloys but by the end of the first Millennium AD brass artefacts are found in Scandinavian graves in Scotland, brass was being used in the manufacture of coins in Northumbria and there is archaeological and historical evidence for the production of brass in Germany and The Low Countries areas rich in calamine ore which would remain important centres of brass making throughout the medieval period, especially Dinant – brass objects are still collectively known as dinanterie in French.

The ballad probably derives its name from medieval French dance songs or " ballares " ( from which we also get ballet ), as did the alternative rival form that became the French Ballade.

File: British Museum Royal Gold Cup. jpg | Room 40-Royal Gold Cup or Saint Agnes Cup, c. AD 1370-80 ( generally agreed to be the outstanding surviving example of late medieval French plate )

The Battle of Bouvines, which took place on 27 July 1214, was a medieval battle ending the twelve year old Angevin-Flanders War that was fundamental in the early development of France in the Middle Ages by confirming the French crown's sovereignty over the Angevin lands of Brittany and Normandy.

Ironically, the rise of infantry in the early 16th century coincided with the " golden age " of heavy cavalry ; a French or Spanish army at the beginning of the century could have up to half its numbers made up of various kinds of light and heavy cavalry, whereas in earlier medieval and later 17th century armies the proportion of cavalry was seldom more than a quarter.

It has numerous different spellings in medieval French Arthurian romance, including: Camaalot, Camalot, Chamalot, Camehelot ( sometimes read as Camchilot ), Camaaloth, Caamalot, Camahaloth, Camaelot, Kamaalot, Kamaaloth, Kaamalot, Kamahaloth, Kameloth, Kamaelot, Kamelot, Kaamelot, Cameloth, Camelot, Kamelot, Kaamelot, and Gamalaot.

This statement was likely picked up by the author of the Estoire Merlin, or Vulgate Merlin, where the author ( who was fond of fanciful folk etymologies ) asserts that Escalibor " is a Hebrew name which means in French ' cuts iron, steel, and wood '" (" c ' est non Ebrieu qui dist en franchois trenche fer & achier et fust "; note that the word for " steel " here, achier, also means " blade " or " sword " and comes from medieval Latin aciarium, a derivative of acies " sharp ", so there is no direct connection with Latin chalybs in this etymology ).

In French medieval cuisine, banquets were common among the aristocracy.

One of Ganshof's contemporaries, the French historian Marc Bloch, was arguably the most influential 20th century medieval historian.

The term aketon, originally medieval French alcottonem might be a loan from Arabic al-qutn " cotton ( definite article-the cotton )".

The true forerunner of human rights discourse was the concept of natural rights which appeared as part of the medieval Natural law tradition that became prominent during the Enlightenment with such philosophers as John Locke, Francis Hutcheson, and Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui, and featured prominently in the political discourse of the American Revolution and the French Revolution.

During the period in which Ivanhoe is set, the nobility would have spoken a mixture of medieval English and medieval French.

The 12th-century French writer Chrétien de Troyes, who added Lancelot and the Holy Grail to the story, began the genre of Arthurian romance that became a significant strand of medieval literature.

Ronnie Ellenblum claims this view was influenced by French imperialism and colonialism ; if medieval French crusaders could integrate themselves into local society, then certainly modern French colonies in the Levant could thrive.

Aside from Latin, the standard written language of medieval Europe, the populace of crusader Jerusalem communicated in vernacular forms of French and Italian ; Greek, Armenian, and even Arabic were used by Frankish settlers.

Luxembourg, somewhat diminished in size ( as the medieval lands had been slightly reduced by the French and Prussian heirs ), was augmented in another way through the elevation to the status of grand duchy and placed under the rule of William I of the Netherlands.

Unlike in the past there are many types of lutes encountered today: 5-course medieval lutes, renaissance lutes of 6 to 10 courses in many pitches for solo and ensemble performance of Renaissance works, the archlute of Baroque works, 11-course lutes in d-minor tuning for 17th century French, German and Czech music, 13 / 14-course d-minor tuned German Baroque Lutes for later High Baroque and Classical music, theorbo for basso continuo parts in Baroque ensembles, gallichons / mandoras, bandoras, orpharions and others.

Research by the French historian Marc Bloch in medieval French agricultural history showed the existence of names for two different ploughs, " the ard ( araire ) was wheeless and had to be dragged across the fields, while the turnplough ( charrue ) was mounted on wheels ".

Gautier rendered great services to the study of early French literature, the most important of his numerous works on medieval subjects being a critical text ( Tours, 1872 ) with translation and introduction of the Chanson de Roland, and Les Épopées françaises ( 3 vols., 1866-1867 ; 2nd ed., 5 vols., 1878-1897, including a Bibliographie des chansons de geste ).

Scholarly opinions differ on the exact manner of recitation, but it is generally believed that the chansons de geste were originally sung ( whereas the medieval romances were probably spoken ) by poets, minstrels or jongleurs, who would sometimes accompany themselves, or be accompanied, on the vielle, a mediæval fiddle played with a bow.

In medieval Germany, the chansons de geste elicited little interest from the German courtly audience, unlike the romances which were much appreciated.

It is the earliest surviving of the chansons de geste or epic poems of medieval France in the langue d ' oïl, in what would become the French language.

* Huon of Bordeaux, character from medieval chansons de geste

This period is marked by his intense involvement with Remy de Gourmont in the publication of L ' Ymagier, a luxuriously produced " art " magazine devoted to the symbolic analysis of medieval and popular prints.

Jean de Venette, a Carmelite friar and medieval chronicler vividly describes the chaos in France which he states he himself witnessed, after the time of this Battle.

* ( Gal ) Pena, Xosé Ramón, " Historia da litratura medieval galego-portuguesa ", Santiago de Compostela, 2002, 199-210.

Christine de Pizan ( also seen as de Pisan ) ( 1363 – c. 1430 ) was a Venetian-born late medieval author who challenged misogyny and stereotypes prevalent in the late medieval culture.

The language of Don Quixote, although still containing archaisms, is far more understandable to modern Spanish readers than is, for instance, the completely medieval Spanish of the Poema de mio Cid, a kind of Spanish that is as different from Cervantes's language as Middle English is from Modern English.

Fondation Baur and Museum of the arts d ' Extrême-Orient, Parc et campagne de la Grange and Library ( neolithic shore settlement / Roman villa ), Bronze Age shore settlement of Plonjon, Temple de la Madeleine archeological site, Temple Saint-Gervais archeological site, Old City with Celtic, Roman and medieval villages

* 1212 – Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa: after Pope Innocent III calls European knights to a crusade, forces of Kings Alfonso VIII of Castile, Sancho VII of Navarre, Peter II of Aragon and Afonso II of Portugal defeat those of the Berber Muslim leader Almohad, thus marking a significant turning point in the Reconquista and in the medieval history of Spain.

The Libro de los Juegos, (" Book of games "), or Libro de acedrex, dados e tablas, (" Book of chess, dice and tables ", in Old Spanish ) was commissioned by Alfonso X of Castile, Galicia and León and completed in his scriptorium in Toledo in 1283, is an exemplary piece of Alfonso ’ s medieval literary legacy.

Having multiple artisans working on the Libro de juegos would have been a typical practice for medieval chanceries and scriptoria, where the labor of producing a manuscript was divided amongst individuals of varying capacities, for example the positions of scribe, draftsman, and apprentice cutting pages.

Some books ( guidebooks in particular ) suggest that mazes on cathedral floors originated in the medieval period as alternatives to pilgrimage to the Holy Land, but the earliest attested use of the phrase " chemin de Jerusalem " ( path to Jerusalem ) dates to the late 18th century when it was used to describe mazes at Reims and Saint-Omer.

According to genealogist Edward MacLysaght the surname Lundy is from Norman de la Lounde, a name recorded in medieval documents in counties Tipperary and Kilkenny in Ireland.

Philippe de Vitry was one of the earliest composers to use this technique, and his work evidently had an influence on that of Guillaume de Machaut, one of the most famous named composers of late medieval motets.

According to Joseph Anglade, a philologist and specialist of medieval literature who helped impose the then archaic term Occitan as the sole correct name, the word Lemosin was first used to designate the language at the beginning of the 13th century by Catalan troubadour Raimon Vidal de Besalú in his Razós de trobar

Pre-modern female rhetoricians, outside of Socrates ' friend Aspasia, are rare ; but medieval rhetoric produced by women either in religious orders, such as Julian of Norwich ( d. 1415 ), or the very well-connected Christine de Pizan ( 1364 ?- 1430?

Real, legendary, and fictional episodes from the Reconquista are the subject of much of medieval Galician-Portuguese literature, Spanish literature, and Catalan literature, such as the cantar de gesta.

In 813, according to medieval legend, the light of a bright star guided a shepherd who was watching his flock at night to the burial site in Santiago de Compostela.