Shortly after, in 1869, Irish chemist Thomas Andrews studied the phase transition from a liquid to a gas and coined the term critical point to describe the instant at which a gas and a liquid were indistinguishable as phases, and Dutch physicist Johannes van der Waals supplied the theoretical framework which allowed the prediction of critical behavior based on measurements at much higher temperatures.

In this theoretical framework, diffusion is due to fluctuations whose dimensions range from the molecular scale to the macroscopic scale.

Many theoretical perspectives attempt to explain development ; among the most prominent are: Jean Piaget's Stage Theory, Lev Vygotsky's Social constructivism ( and its heirs, the Cultural Theory of Development of Michael Cole, and the Ecological Systems Theory of Urie Bronfenbrenner ), Albert Bandura's Social learning theory, and the information processing framework employed by cognitive psychology.

Müller's work relies specifically on theoretical assumptions that are very similar to Haeckel's and reflects the German practice to maintain strong connections between empirical research and the philosophical framework of science.

Both magnitude (" relative strength ") and " range ", as given in the table, are meaningful only within a rather complex theoretical framework.

Lambda calculus provides a theoretical framework for describing functions and their evaluation.

His demand for a planned procedure of investigating all things natural marked a new turn in the rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, much of which still surrounds conceptions of proper methodology today.

In this theoretical framework, diffusion is due to fluctuations whose dimensions range from the molecular scale to the macroscopic scale.

Even in the absence of a completely satisfying theoretical physics framework, the idea of exploring extra, compactified, dimensions is of considerable interest in the experimental physics and astrophysics communities.

Once memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley's working memory model were established as a theoretical framework in cognitive psychology, new cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s.

* Nielsen, Sandro ( 2009 ): " Reviewing printed and electronic dictionaries: A theoretical and practical framework ".

This theoretical framework was initially derived from the work of Gregor Johann Mendel published in 1865 and 1866 which was re-discovered in 1900 ; it was initially very controversial.

The Standard Model is the theoretical framework describing all the currently known elementary particles, as well as the Higgs boson.

Quantum field theory ( QFT ) provides a theoretical framework for constructing quantum mechanical models of systems classically represented by an infinite number of degrees of freedom, that is, fields and ( in a condensed matter context ) many-body systems.

The following subsections are for those with a good working knowledge of the formal, mathematical description of quantum mechanics, including familiarity with the formalism and theoretical framework developed in the articles: bra-ket notation and mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics.

Enrico Barone provided a comprehensive theoretical framework for a planned socialist economy.

Stimulated emission was a theoretical discovery by Einstein within the framework of quantum mechanics, wherein the emission is described in terms of photons that are the quanta of the EM field.

Working memory is a theoretical framework that refers to structures and processes used for temporarily storing and manipulating information.

Until the Second World War, no more theoretical framework for social geography was developed, though, leading to a concentration on rather descriptive rural and regional geography.

* Strategy, including: Funding sources ( individuals, corporations, foundations, donors / governments, endowments, sales / events ) and business model ( independent research, contract work, advocacy ); The balance between research, consultancy, and advocacy ; The source of their arguments: Ideology, values or interests ; applied, empirical or synthesis research ; or theoretical or academic research ( Stephen Yeo ); The manner in which the research agenda is developed — by senior members of the think tank or by individual researchers, or by the think tank of their funders ; Their influencing approaches and tactics ( many researchers but an interesting one comes from Abelson ) and the time horizon for their strategies: long term and short term mobilisation ; Their various audiences of the think tanks ( audiences as consumers and public-this merits another blog ; soon ) ( again, many authors, but Zufeng provides a good framework for China ); and Affiliation, which refers to the issue of independence ( or autonomy ) but also includes think tanks with formal and informal links to political parties, interest groups and other political players.

Both perspectives on gendering are integrated in Attraction Theory, a theoretical framework developed by Dr Rory Ridley-Duff illustrating how courtship and parenting obligations ( rather than male dominance ) act as a generative mechanism that produces and reproduces a range of gender identities.

A framework called comparative institutional analysis is proposed to deal with the game theoretical structural understanding of the variety of social norms.

It was adopted as a theoretical framework for analyzing redevelopment processes in large urban distressed areas in European cities ( see “ LUDA: Improving quality of life in Large Urban Distressed Areas ” project – Research funded by the European Commission, EVK4-CT2002-00081 ).

But he also contributed a new theoretical framework which would become the foundation of all Soviet agriculture: a discipline called agrobiology that is a fusion of plant physiology, cytology, genetics and evolutionary theory.

Within this theoretical framework, a French creole is a language phylogenetically based on the French language, more specifically on a 17th century koiné French extant in Paris, the French Atlantic harbours, and the nascent French colonies.

Gaining theoretical control of Tyrol for the Hapsburgs was of strategic importance because it linked the Swiss Confederacy to the Hapsburg-controlled Austrian lands, which facilitated some imperial geographic continuity.

Abstract data types are purely theoretical entities, used ( among other things ) to simplify the description of abstract algorithms, to classify and evaluate data structures, and to formally describe the type systems of programming languages.

Modern Class AB amplifiers commonly have peak efficiencies between 30 – 55 % in audio systems and 50-70 % in radio frequency systems with a theoretical maximum of 78. 5 %.

Its subfields can be divided into practical techniques for its implementation and application in computer systems and purely theoretical areas.

Several condensed matter systems are being studied with potential applications to quantum computation, including experimental systems like quantum dots, SQUIDs, and theoretical models like the toric code and the quantum dimer model.

Modern cartography is closely integrated with geographic information science ( GIScience ) and constitutes many theoretical and practical foundations of geographic information systems.

Critical social theory is, in contrast, a form of self-reflective knowledge involving both understanding and theoretical explanation to reduce entrapment in systems of domination or dependence, obeying the emancipatory interest in expanding the scope of autonomy and reducing the scope of domination.

Additionally, waste heat from SOFC systems may be captured and reused, increasing the theoretical overall efficiency to as high as 80 %- 85 %.

Since the 1950s, hydrology has been approached with a more theoretical basis than in the past, facilitated by advances in the physical understanding of hydrological processes and by the advent of computers and especially geographic information systems ( GIS ).

The archicembalo, built in the 16th century, had an unusual keyboard layout, designed to accommodate variant tuning systems demanded by compositional practice and theoretical experimentation.

With professional focus on a wide variety of problems, theoretical systems, and localized constructs, applied mathematicians work regularly in the study and formulation of mathematical models.

In 2006, U. S. National Academy of Sciences released the report of a study of molecular manufacturing as part of a longer report, A Matter of Size: Triennial Review of the National Nanotechnology Initiative The study committee reviewed the technical content of Nanosystems, and in its conclusion states that no current theoretical analysis can be considered definitive regarding several questions of potential system performance, and that optimal paths for implementing high-performance systems cannot be predicted with confidence.

:" Although theoretical calculations can be made today, the eventually attainable range of chemical reaction cycles, error rates, speed of operation, and thermodynamic efficiencies of such bottom-up manufacturing systems cannot be reliably predicted at this time.

In 1984 Gell-Mann co-founded the Santa Fe Institute — a non-profit theoretical research institute in Santa Fe, New Mexico — to study complex systems and disseminate the notion of a separate interdisciplinary study of complexity theory.

Theoretical and computational neuroscience is the field concerned with the theoretical analysis and computational modeling of biological neural systems.

This was an enormous theoretical leap, but the concept was strongly resisted at first because it contradicted the wave theory of light that followed naturally from James Clerk Maxwell's equations for electromagnetic behavior, and more generally, the assumption of infinite divisibility of energy in physical systems.

This representation is used in theoretical analyses, and in systems that use floating-point representations.

Bacon describes a cycle-collection algorithm for reference counting systems with some similarities to tracing systems, including the same theoretical time bounds, but that takes advantage of reference count information to run much more quickly and with less cache damage.

An often stated ambition of systems biology is the modeling and discovery of emergent properties, properties of a system whose theoretical description is only possible using techniques which fall under the remit of systems biology.

It is inspired by systems theory and systems thinking, and based on the theoretical work of Roger Barker, Gregory Bateson, Humberto Maturana and others.