* Uncomfortable science, due to statistician John Tukey: Inference from a limited sample of data, where further samples influenced by the same causality, a finite natural phenomenon for which it is difficult to overcome the problem of using a common sample of data for both exploratory data analysis and confirmatory data analysis.

* The on-line textbook: Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms, by David J. C. MacKay includes simple examples of the EM algorithm such as clustering using the soft k-means algorithm, and emphasizes the variational view of the EM algorithm, as described in Chapter 33. 7 of version 7. 2 ( fourth edition ).

Inference over hierarchical Bayesian models is often done using Gibbs sampling, and in such a case, instances of the Dirichlet distribution are typically marginalized out of the model by integrating out the Dirichlet random variable.

Firefox 9 includes various new features such as Type Inference, which boosts JavaScript performance by up to 30 %, improved theme integration for Mac OS X Lion, added two finger swipe navigation for Mac OS X Lion, added support for querying Do Not Track status via JavaScript, added support for font-stretch, improved support for text-overflow, improved standards support for HTML5, MathML, and CSS, and fixed several security problems.

The concept and theory of Kolmogorov Complexity is based on a crucial theorem first discovered by Ray Solomonoff, who published it in 1960, describing it in " A Preliminary Report on a General Theory of Inductive Inference " as part of his invention of algorithmic probability.

He gave a more complete description in his 1964 publications, " A Formal Theory of Inductive Inference ," Part 1 and Part 2 in Information and Control.

* A. Forcina and G. M. Giorgi " Early Gini ’ s Contributions to Inequality Measurement and Statistical Inference.

To support this model, a version of Piaget ’ s Transitive Inference Task was used to show that the hippocampus is in fact used as the memory space.

A theory of statistical inference was developed by Charles S. Peirce in " Illustrations of the Logic of Science " ( 1877 – 1878 ) and " A Theory of Probable Inference " ( 1883 ), two publications that emphasized the importance of randomization-based inference in statistics.

* Peirce, C. S. ( 1883 ), " A Theory of Probable Inference ", Studies in Logic, pp. 126-181, Little, Brown, and Company.

Causality: Models, Reasoning and Inference, Cambridge University Press, 2000.

* The on-line textbook: Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms, by David MacKay, contains chapters on elementary error-correcting codes ; on the theoretical limits of error-correction ; and on the latest state-of-the-art error-correcting codes, including low-density parity-check codes, turbo codes, and fountain codes.

Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

* Cam. ac. uk, On-line textbook: " Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms " by David MacKay-giving an entertaining and thorough introduction to Shannon theory, including state-of-the-art methods from coding theory, such as arithmetic coding, low-density parity-check codes, and Turbo codes.

* Design Inference: The website of William A. Dembski

*" Design of the Kernel Language for the Parallel Inference Machine ", U. Kazunori et al., Computer J ( December 1990 ).

* Reject Inference for removing Sampling Bias.

Reject Inference and methods to apply the same.

" An Error in the Argument from Conditionality and Sufficiency to the Likelihood Principle " in Error and Inference: Recent Exchanges on Experimental Reasoning, Reliability and the Objectivity and Rationality of Science ( D Mayo and A. Spanos eds.

The ideas of natural selection as a mechanism for evolution required adaptations to the Candollean system, which started the studies on evolutionary relationships and phylogenetic classifications of plants.

The outcome of a cladistic analysis is a cladogram – a tree-shaped diagram ( dendrogram ) that represents a phylogenetic hypothesis, a hypothesis on evolutionary relationships.

This division seems likely reflects their phylogenetic relationships.

Based on the genome organisation and DNA replication mechanism it seems that phylogenetic relationships may exist between the rudiviruses ( Rudiviridae ) and the large eukaryal DNA viruses: the African swine fever virus ( Asfarviridae ), Chlorella viruses ( Phycodnaviridae ) and poxviruses ( Poxviridae ).

In determining the relationships between " phylogenetic linkages " and " evolutionary laws of form ," both Gegenbaur and Haeckel relied on a method of comparison.

While taxonomists using molecular phylogenetic techniques find strong support for the order, there remain questions about the morphological relationships of the Quillajaceae and Surianaceae to the rest of the order, due in part to limited research on these families.

" Approximate geographic ranges, fur patterns and phylogenetics | phylogenetic relationships between some giraffe subspecies based on mitochondrial DNA sequences.

* Mayr, G. ( 2005 ): Tertiary plotopterids ( Aves, Plotopteridae ) and a novel hypothesis on the phylogenetic relationships of penguins ( Spheniscidae ).

Phenetics, popular in the mid-20th century but now largely obsolete, uses distance matrix-based methods to construct trees based on overall similarity, which is often assumed to approximate phylogenetic relationships.

Ultimately, there is no way to measure whether a particular phylogenetic hypothesis is accurate or not, unless the true relationships among the taxa being examined are already known ( which may happen with bacteria or viruses under laboratory conditions ).

The relationships of these families were uncertain until 2011, when they were resolved in a molecular phylogenetic study based on two nuclear genes and ten chloroplast genes.

In phylogenetic taxonomy, the relationships between animals are not typically divided into ranks, but illustrated as a nested " family tree " known as a cladogram.

The development of DNA sequencing at the end of the twentieth century had a profound impact on the research of phylogenetic relationships within the family.

The employment of ndhF and cpDNA sequences has refuted many of the traditionally accepted phylogenetic relationships within Magnoliaceae.

By the end of the 20th century, DNA sequencing had become available as a method of large scale research on phylogenetic relationships.

These early techniques have been replaced by newer ones based on mitochondrial DNA sequences and molecular phylogenetics approaches that make use of computational procedures for sequence alignment, construction of phylogenetic trees and calibration of molecular clocks to infer evolutionary relationships.

Phylogenetic analyses of Vitis ( Vitaceae ) based on complete chloroplast genome sequences: effects of taxon sampling and phylogenetic methods on resolving relationships among rosids.

* ( 2003 ): RAG-1 sequences resolve phylogenetic relationships within charadriiform birds.

* ( 2004 ): Avian molecular systematics on the rebound: a fresh look at modern shorebird phylogenetic relationships.

* Ross J, Jiang H, Kanost MR, Wang Y. Serine proteases and their homologs in the Drosophila melanogaster genome: an initial analysis of sequence conservation and phylogenetic relationships.

The phylogenetic relationships of baphetids is uncertain ; while many studies have placed the group as a close relative of Amniota, other analyses have found Baphetidae to be a more basal clade of early stem tetrapods.

However, it has turned out that similar plumage patterns and modes of life are not reliable to determine higher phylogenetic relationships in woodpeckers, and thus only 3 subfamilies should be accepted.

The presence or absence of a coelom and the way in which it was formed was believed to be important in understanding the phylogenetic relationships of animal phyla.

Alignments are also used to aid in establishing evolutionary relationships by constructing phylogenetic trees.