Mathematically, the process is the same as that of quantum tunneling, except with electromagnetic waves instead of quantum-mechanical wavefunctions.

Mathematically, the problem of recovering conductivity from surface measurements of current and potential is a non-linear inverse problem and is severely ill-posed.

Mathematically it is defined as follows:

Mathematically, the motion of a continuum using the Eulerian description is expressed by the mapping function

Mathematically, the catenary curve is the graph of the hyperbolic cosine function.

Mathematically, the conjecture states that the maximal Cauchy development of generic compact or asymptotically flat initial data is locally inextendible as a regular Lorentzian manifold.

Mathematically, density is defined as mass divided by volume:

Mathematically this is described as the convolution of a time-varying input signal x ( t ) with the filter's impulse response h, defined as:

Mathematically, the unification is accomplished under an SU ( 2 ) × U ( 1 ) gauge group.

Mathematically, incompressibility is expressed by saying that the density ρ of a fluid parcel does not change as it moves in the flow field, i. e.,

Mathematically, this is because in reversible processes, the change in entropy of the cold reservoir is the negative of that of the hot reservoir ( i. e., ), keeping the overall change of entropy zero.

Mathematically, this says that the state vector is confined to one of the two eigenspaces of P, and is not allowed to range over the entire Hilbert space.

Mathematically, a sequence of coin flips ( fair or not ) is an example of a Bernoulli process, and its entropy is given by the binary entropy function.

Mathematically, this is expressed by saying that the curl of the flow field is everywhere equal to zero.

Mathematically, the logistic map is written

Mathematically, a neuron's network function is defined as a composition of other functions, which can further be defined as a composition of other functions.

Mathematically, the total electromagnetic energy density ( radiation energy density ) in thermodynamic equilibrium from Planck's law is

Mathematically, the light received from stars as a function of star distance in a hypothetical fractal cosmos is:

Mathematically, the formula above entails that all incomes are at least the lower bound x < sub > m </ sub >, which is positive.

Mathematically, this correspondendence is supported by the second term, on the r. h. s.

Mathematically, QED is an abelian gauge theory with the symmetry group U ( 1 ).

Mathematically, QCD is a non-Abelian gauge theory based on a local ( gauge ) symmetry group called SU ( 3 ).

Mathematically, the restoring force F is given by

Mathematically, the equation may be rearranged to compute torque for a given power output.

Mathematically, Bayes ' theorem gives the relationship between the probabilities of and, and, and the conditional probabilities of given and given, and.

Mathematically, terminal velocity — without considering buoyancy effects — is given by

Mathematically, the Levenshtein distance between two strings is given by where

Mathematically, the gradient of a two-variable function ( here the image intensity function ) is at each image point, a 2D vector with the components given by the derivatives in the horizontal and vertical directions.

If a curve γ represents the path of a particle then the instantaneous velocity of the particle at a given point P is expressed by a vector, called the tangent vector to the curve at P. Mathematically, given a parametrized C < sup > 1 </ sup > curve γ = γ ( t ), for every value t

Mathematically, the axiom states that the probability of selecting item i from a pool of j items is given by:

Mathematically speaking, two quantum states and are separated by a selection rule if for any given Hamiltonian, while they are separated by a superselection rule if for all physical observables.

Mathematically stated, given two different prefixes p1, p2, the attack finds two appendages m1 and m2 such that hash ( p1 ∥ m1 ) = hash ( p2 ∥ m2 ) ( where ∥ is the concatenation operation ).

Mathematically, each physical law can be expressed with respect to the coordinates given by an inertial frame of reference by a mathematical equation ( for instance, a differential equation ) which relates the various coordinates of the various objects in the spacetime.

Mathematically, the gradient of a two-variable function ( here the image intensity function ) is at each image point a 2D vector with the components given by the derivatives in the horizontal and vertical directions.

Mathematically, spacetime is represented by a 4-dimensional differentiable manifold M and the metric is given as a covariant, second-rank, symmetric tensor on M, conventionally denoted by g. Moreover the metric is required to be nondegenerate with signature (< tt >-+++</ tt >).

Mathematically, the URR is closely related to Kt / V, and the two quantities can be derived from another with more or less precision, depending on the amount of additional information available about a given dialysis session.

Mathematically, a baseband modulated signal may be approximated by a sinusoidal continuous wave signal with a frequency f < sub > m </ sub >.

Mathematically, the potential of the ion cores can be treated by various models, the simplest being the nearly free electron model.

Mathematically this invariance can be ensured in one of two ways: by treating the four-vectors as Euclidean vectors and multiplying time by the square root of ; or by keeping time a real quantity and embedding the vectors in a Minkowski space.

Mathematically it is a manifold consisting of " events " which are described by some type of coordinate system.

Mathematically, if the coordinate system undergoes a transformation described by an invertible matrix M, so that a coordinate vector x is transformed to x ′

Mathematically, the most basic wave is the ( spatially ) one-dimensional sine wave ( or harmonic wave or sinusoid ) with an amplitude described by the equation:

Mathematically, division by zero within reals is explicitly undefined if the problem is zero divided by zero, and is defined as either positive or negative infinity depending on the signs of the numbers involved, or is undefined.

Mathematically, convection can be described by the convection – diffusion equation or the generic scalar transport equation.

Mathematically, the LM curve is defined by the equation, where the supply of money is represented as the real amount M / P ( as opposed to the nominal amount M ), with P representing the price level, and L being the real demand for money, which is some function of the interest rate i and the level Y of real income.

Mathematically, we write: " 40: 60 " = " 2: 3 " ( dividing both quantities by 20 ).

Mathematically, corrosion rates of glasses are characterized by normalized corrosion rates of elements NR < sub > i </ sub > ( g / cm < sup > 2 </ sup >· d ) which are determined as the ratio of total amount of released species into the water M < sub > i </ sub > ( g ) to the water-contacting surface area S ( cm < sup > 2 </ sup >), time of contact t ( days ) and weight fraction content of the element in the glass f < sub > i </ sub >:

Mathematically, assuming the terminator lies on a great circle, such a crescent will actually be the figure bounded by a half-ellipse and a half-circle, with the major axis of the ellipse coinciding with a diameter of the semicircle.

Mathematically, this can be expressed by means of the signal to noise ratio ( SNR or S / N ).

Mathematically, the climatological annual cycle is commonly estimated from observational data or model output by taking the average of all Januaries, all Februaries, and so forth.