The chief magistrate of the Aedui in Caesar's time was called Vergobretus ( according to Mommsen, " judgment-worker "), who was elected annually, possessed powers of life and death, but was forbidden to go beyond the frontier.

Historians such as Theodore Mommsen and Bernard Bavant aruge that all Dalmatia was fully romanized and Latin speaking by the 4th century.

Merchants and artisans from many parts of the Roman world established themselves in coastal Libya and the province was greatly " Romanized ", according to Theodore Mommsen.

Already in the Mommsen text edition of 1882 it was suggested that the very long name of Jordanes ' father should be split into two parts: Alanovii Amuthis, both genitive forms.

It falls before the simple fact that the first part of the Liber Pontificalis was compiled long before these dissensions, most probably ( Duchesne ) by a Roman cleric in the reign of Pope Boniface II ( 530 – 532 ), or ( Waitz and Mommsen ) early in the 7th century.

There are, however, many historians such as Martin Broszat and Hans Mommsen who dismiss this " intentionalist " approach, and argue that the concept was actually an " ideological metaphor " in the early days of Nazism.

His papers on epigraphy ( collected in Commentationes epigraphicae, i vols., 1850-54 ) brought him into conflict with Theodor Mommsen in connexion with the preparation of the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, a scheme for which, drawn up by Mommsen, was approved in 1847.

The German historian Hans Mommsen in a 1997 interview claimed that a major motive for the pogrom was the desire of the Gauleiters of the NSDAP to seize Jewish property and businesses.

Mommsen was quoted as saying: " The need for money by the party organization stemmed from the fact that Franz Xaver Schwarz, the party treasurer, kept the local and regional organizations of the party short of money.

T. Mommsen states that Sallust acted in Pompey's interests ( according to Mommsen, Pompey was prepearing to install his own dictatorship ).

However, Theodor Mommsen has shown that the Mathesis was composed in the year 336 and not in 354 as was formerly held, thus making it an earlier work than De errore profanarum religionum, and could have been written prior to Firmicus ' conversion to Christianity.

Mommsen thought he was rex sacrorum of Rome, view that is now not considered probable.

The apparently needless cruelty of Mummius in Corinth, by no means characteristic of him, is explained by Mommsen as due to the instructions of the senate, prompted by the mercantile party, which was eager to dispel a dangerous commercial rival.

After his death, the revised edition of the text was completed by JG Baiter and K Halm, and contained numerous emendations by Theodor Mommsen and JN Madvig.

Having taken part in 1849 with Otto Jahn and Theodor Mommsen in a political agitation for the maintenance of the imperial constitution, Haupt was deprived of his professorship by a decree of April 22, 1855.

It was founded in 1853 by Theodor Mommsen and is the first and major organization aiming at a comprehensive survey.

The leading figure of this committee was Theodor Mommsen ( who wrote several of the volumes covering Italy ).

It was given a critical edition by Theodor Mommsen in 1882.

Mommsen argues that the royal cavalry was drawn exclusively from the ranks of the Patricians ( patricii ), the aristocracy of early Rome, which was purely hereditary.

According to Theodor Mommsen ( The History of Rome, volume 4, The Revolution, ISBN 1-4353-4597-5, page 4 ), 1 January became the first day of the year in 600 AUC of the Roman Calendar ( 153 BC ), due to disasters in the Lusitanian War.

He thus became the first English language historian and indeed the first historian after Hans Mommsen to accept the conclusions of the book, that the Nazis had not set the Reichstag on fire in 1933 and that Marinus van der Lubbe had acted alone.

Mommsen, however, argues that the passage refers to members of the First Class of commoners being admitted to cavalry service in 403 BC for the first time as an emergency measure.

Finding himself unequal to the task single-handed, Marquardt left the preparation of the first three volumes ( Römisches Staatsrecht ) to Theodor Mommsen, while he himself contributed vols.

According to Theodor Mommsen, in the first century C. E.

Most probably, says Mommsen, on the occasion of the first appointment of the curule aediles in 367 BC, who were to be the curatores ludorum sollemnium ( Cic.

Mommsen first rose to fame through a biography of Max Weber in 1959.

In an article entitled " Neither Denial nor Forgetfulness Will Free Us " first published in the Frankfurter Rundschau on December 1, 1986, Mommsen argued that Historikerstreit was a result of the failures of modern society Mommsen argued that in the prosperous 1950s-60s, most Germans were happy to forget about their recent past, and looked forward to a brighter future Starting with the oil shock of the early 1970s and the rise of fundamentalist Islam in the late 1970s, Mommsen argued that the idea of a progressively better future was discredited, leading to a pessimistic public mood, and the a renewed interest in history This had occurred in tandem in a period when German historians had started to make a more critical examination of their recent past As a result at the precise mood when public demanded a past that could make them feel good about being Germans, German historians came under attack for not writing the sort of history the public wanted Mommsen argued that the work of those like Ernst Nolte was intended to provide the sort of history that would allow Germans feel good about being Germans by engaging in “… an explanatory strategy that … will be seen as a justification of National Socialist crimes by all those who are still under the influence of the extreme anti-Soviet propaganda of National Socialism " Mommsen charged that Ernst Nolte was attempting to egregiously whitewash the German past.

In this respect, it is important to note that Mommsen — at the time employed by the Munich-based Institute for Contemporary History — was the first historian in the early 1960s to accept the conclusions of the journalist Fritz Tobias who argued in a 1961 book The Reichstag Fire that the Reichstag Fire of 1933 was not started by the Nazis and that Marinus van der Lubbe had acted alone.

In an essay entitled " The Search for the ‘ Lost History ” Observations on the Historical Self-Evidence of the Federal Republic ” first published in the September / October 1986 edition of Merkur magazine, Mommsen began his article by arguing that the Historikerstreit was the result of the desire of the German Right to have a history that they could approve of.

In another essay entitled “ The New Historical Consciousness and the Relativizing of National Socialism ” first published in the October 1986 edition of the Blätter für deutsche und internationale Politik magazine, Mommsen attacked conservative historians such as Klaus Hildebrand who argued that the “ singularity ” of the Holocaust disproved any theory of generic fascism, while at the same time comparing National Socialism to Communism.

The first of the annalists, the father of Roman history, as he has been called, was Q. Fabius Pictor ; contemporary with him was Lucius Cincius Alimentus, who flourished during the Hannibalic war ( not to be confused with L. Cincius, the author of various political and antiquarian treatises ( de Fastis, de Comitiis, de Priscis Verbis ), who lived in the Augustan age, to which period Mommsen, considering them a later fabrication, refers the Greek annals of L. Cincius Alimentus ).

The expressions " tribu movere " and " aerarium facere ," regarded by Mommsen as identical in meaning (" to degrade from a higher tribe to a lower "), are explained by A. H. J. Greenidge the first as relegation from a higher to a lower tribe or total exclusion from the tribes, the second as exclusion from the centuries.

Mommsen was later in a book review in 1988 to call Nolte's book, Der Europäische Bürgrkrieg a " regression back to the brew of racist-nationalistic ideology of the interwar period ".

" The German philosopher Jürgen Habermas wrote that Broszat had written " convincingly " on the need for " historicization " Hans Mommsen praised Broszat's call for " historicization " as a way to avoid "... this ubiquitous tendency to " shake off the mortgages of a past now happily made morally neutral "".

* Mommsen, Hans " German Society And The Resistance Against Hitler, 1933-1945 " pages 255-276 from The Third Reich The Essential Readings edited by Christian Leitz, London: Blackwell, ISBN 0-631-20700-7.

* Mommsen, Hans Alternatives to Hitler German Resistance Under the Third Reich, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-691-11693-8.

However functionalist historians such as Timothy Mason, Hans Mommsen, and Ian Kershaw argue that the document shows no such plans, and instead contend that the Hossbach Memorandum was an improvised ad hoc response by Hitler to the growing crisis in the German economy in the late 1930s.

Since most of the early functionalist historians were West German, it was often enough for intentionalist historians, especially for those outside Germany, to note that men such as Broszat and Hans Mommsen had spent their adolescence in the Hitler Youth and then to say that their work was an apologia for National Socialism.

At the same time, Kershaw sees considerable merit in the work of such historians as Timothy Mason, Hans Mommsen, Martin Broszat and Wolfgang Schieder, who argue that Hitler had no “ programme ” in foreign policy, and instead contend that his foreign policy was simply a kneejerk reaction to domestic pressures in the economy and his need to maintain his popularity.

The picture Mommsen has consistently drawn of the Final Solution is of an aloof Hitler largely unwilling and incapable of active involvement in administration who presided over an incredibly disorganized regime.

Mommsen has forcefully contended that the Holocaust cannot be explained as result of Hitler alone, but was instead a product of the fractured decision making process in Nazi Germany which caused the " cumulative radicalization " which led to the Holocaust.

Furthermore, for Mommsen, Hitler played little or no real role in the development of the Holocaust, instead preferring to let his subordinates take the initiative.

As such, Mommsen has denied that Hitler ever gave any sort of order for the Holocaust, written or unwritten.

Mommsen has argued that Hitler did give the order for the Kommissarbefehl ( Commissar Order ) of 1941, that helped lead to the Holocaust, but was not part of the Holocaust proper.

Mommsen wrote that Hitler was the " ideological and political originator " of the Holocaust, a " utopian objective " that came to life " only in the uncertain light of the Dictator's fanatical propaganda utterances, eagerly seized upon as orders for action by men wishing to prove their diligence, the efficiency of their machinery and their political indispensability ".

Mommsen is best known for arguing that Adolf Hitler was a " weak dictator " who rather than acting decisively, reacted to various social pressures.

In a debate with Klaus Hildebrand in 1976, Mommsen argued against " personalistic " theories of the Third Reich as explaining little and providing an attempt to retroactively provide Hitler with a sense of vision that he did not possess.

Mommsen argued that Hitler did not have a set of rational political beliefs to operate from, and instead held a very few strongly held, but vague ideas that were not capable of providing a basis for rational thinking.

Mommsen argued against Hildebrand that Hitler operated largely as an opportunistic showman concerned only with the best way of promoting his image in the here and now with no regard for the future.

In Mommsen's view, the evidence is simply lacking that Hitler or anyone else in the Nazi regime had any sort of masterplan, and instead Mommsen has contended that the Third Reich was simply a jumble of rival institutions feuding with one another.

Mommsen has pointed out that on the economic and Church questions, Hitler was not the leading radical, and that for historians it is too easy " to emphasize as the final cause of the criminal climax and terroristic hubris of National Socialist policy the determining influence of Hitler ".

Moreover, Mommsen has maintained that because the role of Hitler has been inflated by historians, the role of traditional German elites in supporting the Nazi " restoration of social order " has been accordingly overlooked.

Mommsen has argued that historians should not reduce the study of the Nazi period to " the Hitler phenomenon ", but must take a broader look at the factors in German society which allow the Holocaust to occur.

* Intentionalist historians such as Andreas Hillgruber, Eberhard Jäckel, Klaus Hildebrand and Karl Dietrich Bracher have criticized Mommsen for underestimating the importance of Hitler and Nazi ideology.

The Swiss historian Walter Hofer accused Mommsen of " not seeing because he does not want to see " what Hofer saw as the obvious connection between what Hitler wrote in Mein Kampf and his later actions.

The Israeli historian Omer Bartov wrote in 2003 about Mommsen ’ s functionalist understanding of the Third Reich that :" In this reading, ideology is recognized and then dismissed as irrelevant ; the suffering of the victims is readily acknowledged and then omitted as having nothing to tell us about the mechanics of genocide ; and individual perpetrators from Adolf Hitler, Heinrich Himmler and Reinhard Heyrdrich to the lowliest SS man are shoved out of the historical picture as contemptible, but ultimately unimportant pawns in the larger scheme of a “ polycratic state ” whose predilection for “ cumulative radicalization ” was a function of its structure rather the product of intentional planning or self-proclaimed will ”