Orientalism is a term used by art historians, literary and cultural studies scholars for the imitation or depiction of aspects of Middle Eastern, and East Asian cultures ( Eastern cultures ) by American and European writers, designers and artists.

" Orientalism " is widely used in art, to refer to the works of the many Western 19th century artists, who specialized in " Oriental " subjects, often drawing on their travels to Western Asia.

Since the 18th century, " Orientalist " has been the traditional term for a scholar of Oriental studies ; however the use in English of " Orientalism " to describe the academic subject of " Oriental studies " is rare ; the Oxford English Dictionary cites only one such usage, by Lord Byron in 1812.

Much of Said's criticism of Western " Orientalism " is based on particularizing trends also present in Asian works by Indian, Chinese and Japanese writers and artists, in their views of Western culture and tradition.

According to Thomas Trautman's account, " James Mill's highly influential History of British India ( 1817 )-most particularly the long essay ' Of the Hindus ' comprising ten chapters – is the single most important source of British Indophobia and hostility to Orientalism ".

He is the author of seven books, including Why I Am Not a Muslim ( 1995 ), The Origins of the Koran ( 1998 ), The Quest for the Historical Muhammad ( 2000 ), What the Koran Really Says: Language, Text and Commentary ( 2002 ) and Defending the West: A Critique of Edward Said's Orientalism ( 2007 ).

In the book Sacco references Joseph Conrad's Under Western Eyes, Heart of Darkness, and Edward Said's Orientalism to draw links between the situation he is witnessing and colonialism.

The process of conducting anthropological research and then applying knowledge in attempts to ameliorate the lives of research participants can be problematic, and is often laced with elements of Orientalism and / or Colonialism.

Instead, the typical kritikal link is one of re-entrenching the philosophy or mindset to be criticized by the argument, be it biopower / biopolitics, racism, militarism, realism in international relations, patriarchy, statism, imperialism / Orientalism, capitalism, gendered language, or other objectionable systems of thought and action.

The term is an inversion of Orientalism, Edward Said ’ s label for stereotyped Western views of the East.

The terminal building which rises on an area of is one of the most famous examples of European Orientalism, and has influenced the designs of other architects.

The book also contains a lengthy critique of Edward Said's Orientalism which Ahmad argues reproduces the very Liberal Humanist tradition that it seeks to undermine in its selection of Western canonized texts that are critiqued for their Orientalism, as this upholds the idea that Western culture is represented in its entirety through those very texts.

Furthermore Ahmad asserts that by tracing Orientalist thought all the way back to Ancient Greece it becomes unclear in Said's work whether Orientalism is a product of Colonialism, or whether Colonialism is, in fact, a product of Orientalism.

Scherezade was admired at the time for its racy sensuality and sumptuous staging, but these days it is rarely performed ; to modern tastes, it is considered too much of a pantomime and its then fashionable Orientalism appears dated.

He has published a history of Orientalism and is an acknowledged expert on The Arabian Nights.

Another of Irwin's key points is that oriental scholarship or ' Orientalism ' " owes more to Muslim scholarship than most Muslims realise.

While exoticism is closely linked to Orientalism, it is not a movement necessarily associated with a particular time period or culture.

Gérôme was the precursor, and often the master, of a number of French painters in the later part of the century whose works were often frankly salacious, frequently featuring scenes in harems, public baths and slave auctions ( the last two also available with classical decor ), and responsible, with others, for " the equation of Orientalism with the nude in pornographic mode ".

Chin also accuses Kingston of " practising an inauthentic Orientalism inherited from

He also painted Arabic figures, in line with the vogue for Orientalism in art.

Sir Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb ( 2 January 1895 – 22 October 1971 ), also commonly referred to as " H. A. R. Gibb ", was a Scottish historian on Orientalism.

They also do nothing to discount the fertility of Orientalism for other academics.

In music, Orientalism may be applied to styles occurring in different periods, such as the alla Turca, used by multiple composers including Mozart and Beethoven.

Orientalism, in fact, became widely considered in the West both one of the best-known aspects of Russian music and a trait of Russian national character.

One well-known example of cultural appropriation into the European classical music genre arose from the 18th century fad known as " Orientalism ", in which music, architecture, costume and visual arts from " Oriental " cultures ( including the Ottoman empire, India, China and Japan ) became highly fashionable.

Some scholars approach raga rock and other uses of non-Western musical materials in Western popular music from sociological perspectives, especially as a manifestation of Orientalism.

In this viewpoint, the societies of India, China, and the Middle East were societies with glorious pasts but that they have become trapped in a static past ( see Orientalism ).

Some modern scholars have proposed that British Israelism grew out of earlier schools of thought, in particular various schools of " Phoenicianism " or " Orientalism " that developed from the 18th century.

Goldziher's works have taken on a renewed importance in recent times owing to Edward Said's critical attacks in his book Orientalism.

Despite the flourishing of Orientalism in France in the 17th century, and despite the fact that Antoine Galland, Barthélemy d ' Herbelot de Molainville and François Pétis de la Croix at one time frequented the Wednesday afternoon discussions-les Mercuriales-of Gilles Ménage together, little has remained of the explicit and detailed references to the Masnavi or Sufism in general one could have expected from Pétis de la Croix-or François Bernier for that matter.

Examples include primitivism, exoticism, as well as culturally specific forms such as Orientalism, Japonisme.

He has published many books, including Poverty from the Wealth of Nations ( Macmillan, 2000 ), Governments and Markets in Economic Development Strategies ( Praeger: 1989 ), Is There An Islamic Problem ( Kuala Lumpur: The Other Press, 2004, republished in 2007 as Challenging the New Orientalism, IPI: 2007 ), and most recently, Israeli Exceptionalism: The Destabilizing Logic of Zionism ( Palgrave Macmillan: 2009 ).

British Orientalism, though not as common as in France at the same period, had many specialists, including John Frederick Lewis, who lived for nine years in Cairo, David Roberts, a Scot who made lithographs of his travels in the Middle East and Italy, the nonsense writer Edward Lear, a continual traveller who reached as far as Ceylon, and Richard Dadd.

The most Protestant of all early Protestant Buddhists, Olcott was the liminoid figure, the griot who because of his awkward standing betwixt and between the American Protestant grammars of his youth and the Asian Buddhist lexicon of his adulthood was able to conjure traditional Sinhalese Buddhism, Protestant modernism, metropolitan gentility, and academic Orientalism into a decidedly new creole tradition.

Vathek capitalised on the 18th ( and early 19th ) century obsession with all things Oriental ( see Orientalism ), which was inspired by Antoine Galland's translation of The Arabian Nights ( itself re-translated, into English, in 1708 ).

Meanwhile, Orientalism, Egyptian motifs, the tragic anti-hero, the wild landscape, the historical novel, and scenes from the Middle Ages and the Renaissance — all these elements of Romanticism — created a vibrant period that defies easy classification.

Meanwhile, Orientalism, Egyptian motifs, the tragic anti-hero, the wild landscape, the historical novel and scenes from the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, all these elements of Romanticism created a vibrant period that defies classicism.

" However, some Muslims objected to the way Nussimbaum depicted Islam in his writings, accusing him of Orientalism and of not being a " real " Muslim.

Eakins then studied art in Europe from 1866 to 1870, notably in Paris with Jean-Léon Gérôme, being only the second American pupil of the French realist painter famous as a master of Orientalism.

During the 19th century, odalisques became common fantasy figures in the artistic movement known as Orientalism, being featured in many erotic paintings from that era.

In 1978, the Palestinian-American scholar Edward Said published his influential and controversial book, Orientalism, which " would forever redefine " the word ; he used the term to describe a pervasive Western tradition, both academic and artistic, of prejudiced outsider interpretations of the East, shaped by the attitudes of European imperialism in the 18th and 19th centuries.

A Punch book review for December 1917 said: " But, to be honest, the others ( with the exception of one quaint little comedy of a canine ghost ) are but indifferent stuff, too full of snakes and hidden treasure and general tawdriness — the kind of Orientalism, in fact, that one used to associate chiefly with the Earl's Court Exhibition.